Ancient inventions and innovations in science and technology remain a mystery and a significant challenge for contemporary humans trying to uncover how they were created. Each civilization carries unique achievements that later generations find impossible to decode.
Damascus steel (or Wootz) is one of the most mysterious materials in the world. This legendary steel was used to craft powerful weapons renowned during the medieval period, such as the Damascus sword, an exceptionally sharp blade.
Although famous across medieval battlefields, few know that Wootz steel actually predates that era by many years. According to researchers, this famous sword-making steel originated thousands of years earlier, during ancient India.
“Lăng không trảm khinh sa” – Cutting threads in mid-air
In the 11th century, when the Crusaders “swept” into the Middle East, they encountered Islamic warriors wielding blades of exceptional quality that even the bravest soldiers feared. By the late 17th century, Wootz steel was still being produced on a near-industrial scale, with tens of thousands of steel ingots shipped from the Coromandel coast to Iran.
Based on archaeological evidence, researchers have determined that, prior to the Common Era, the Wootz steel used to make Damascus swords was produced in what is now the Tamil Nadu state of India.
The technique for making Wootz steel was closely guarded by ancient Indian metallurgists for a very long time. Consequently, Indians held a near-monopoly on the production and export of this remarkable weapon-making steel.
Wootz steel produced in India was exported in ingot form and transported to regions of the Roman world in the West and to China.
Later, during the medieval period, Wootz steel was exported to the Middle East and spread throughout Europe, where it was known as Damascus steel, named after the capital of Syria (as the Arabs had previously brought Wootz steel to Damascus, where the craft of weapon forging was flourishing at the time).
Only Indian Wootz steel was used to forge Damascus knives.
Many theories have emerged over the centuries, but it is commonly believed that the specific steel-making method of Wootz – forged at low temperatures below 1000℃ – is perhaps the primary reason it was chosen by the world’s finest swordsmiths.
The low temperature mentioned here is relative to other steel furnaces, as the temperature of steel furnaces generally exceeds 1600℃.
Its craftsmanship is also very special. It must be forged at low temperatures, a process referred to as “cold forging.” The temperature during forging is controlled at around 300 degrees, not too high and not too low, requiring the swordsmith to judge the temperature of the ingot from subtle changes in the color of the flame and to choose the right moment to forge.
If the temperature rises just a bit higher, the finished product can become scrap if it does not achieve the level of cutting through iron like mud. This requires extraordinary experience and skill. And during the subsequent “quenching” (tempering, hardening) process, the temperature must not be too high.
This is of great significance. Because in general steel-making processes, the higher the temperature, the more impurities can be removed, resulting in better quality finished products.
When crafting swords, they usually choose to forge at high temperatures, as steel has better ductility at high temperatures and is also easier to work with.
Perhaps this is why the special feature of Damascus swords is that the blades are forged from Damascus steel, which is incredibly sharp and resilient even after enduring fierce battles or many years of warfare.
Evidence of this characteristic includes legends about Damascus steel, such as being able to swiftly chop a rifle or cut a hair in mid-air, instilling fear in enemies during combat. There are also legends that the best blades were forged in dragon’s blood.
In the mid-19th century, a curved sword known as the Persian Shamshir was crafted from Damascus steel, with inscriptions in Arabic. The sword measures 91 cm in length, is gold-plated, and intricately engraved with silver, featuring a beautifully designed wooden scabbard covered in a layer of shimmering, luxurious silver.
These swords are easily recognizable by decorative patterns resembling flowing water etched on the blade. Damascus steel is not only a technological achievement in metalworking but also embodies artistic beauty.
Ancient weapons embodying modern high technology
By the 1750s, the production and crafting of Damascus swords began to decline, and the secrets of sword-making fell into the hands of metal craftsmen. To this day, many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the reasons for the discontinuation of sword production.
As firearms began to appear more frequently on battlefields and gradually replaced swords, production came to a halt. Some believe that the formula for making Damascus swords was only passed on to a few individuals and gradually faded over time…
Currently, in the course of research, scientists at the Technical University of Dresden (Germany) have used X-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel samples, discovering the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes.
This indicates that ancient craftsmen knew how to apply nanotechnology when creating Damascus steel. These “ahead-of-their-time” nanostructures are the result of the steel forging process. Specifically, materials were introduced into the steel forging process to create chemical reactions at the quantum level.
Dr. Jeffery Wadsworth and Oleg D. Sherby from Stanford University (UK) have stated that skilled metallurgists believe Damascus steel has a very high carbon content. The carbon content in Damascus steel ranges from 1% to 2%, which is a very small fraction compared to the less than 1% found in ordinary steel.
Another important factor in producing Damascus swords is the relatively low forging temperature – around 1,700 Fahrenheit (approximately 927°C). After being shaped through forging and hammering, the sword blades are reheated to the above temperature and then rapidly cooled using a liquid known as “dragon’s blood.”
It may be precisely this factor that enabled weapons made from Damascus steel to help the Crusaders win many battles and advance deep into the Middle East with the goal of liberating Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Islamic domination.
With modern techniques today, efforts are ongoing to uncover the mysterious formulas and recreate this high-quality steel, but no one has yet succeeded completely. The Damascus steel produced by modern methods is merely made from certain types of steel and welded iron layers to form a billet, unlike what the ancients created.
Although the term “damascus” is not technically accurate today, it is still widely used to describe modern welded steel pieces in commerce. The billet samples depend on how the welders handle the billets, which are drawn out and layered until the desired number of layers is achieved.
For this reason, true Damascus steel is a remarkable metalwork art and showcases an advanced technology of ancient civilizations. Although many have attempted to explore, study, and even reverse-engineer the production techniques of this type of steel, no one has succeeded in doing so to date.
This may forever remain a mystery for all humanity. Not only Damascus steel, but many inventions and discoveries from ancient times continue to be enigma and challenges for modern humans. Why, hundreds of thousands of years ago, did people possess such advanced techniques and peak creative intelligence?
