There has been much debate and speculation surrounding the question of why the Mongol Empire chose to halt its expansion while it was increasingly acquiring spoils and victories in its brutal, intercontinental conquest…
The year 1206 marked the beginning of Genghis Khan’s (Chenggis Khaan) reign, a ruthless leader from northern Mongolia with ambitions of conquest and world domination. His powerful and aggressive army, along with his inhumane battles, swept across all of Asia.
“Wherever the hooves of the Mongol army tread, no grass remains.” As more nations became “easy prey” for the vast Mongol Empire, they surrendered land and wealth to them, with territory stretching across the eastern coast of China. Even countries like Hungary and the Netherlands fell victim to devastation and plunder, leading Europe to seem destined for the same fate as Asia, bowing under the aggression of this army.
The Mongol Empire.
However, unexpectedly, Genghis Khan’s series of victories came to a sudden halt. Despite having a detailed plan to continue the conquest of Vienna, the army abruptly changed direction and returned to Asia.
This remains a significant mystery, as evidence regarding the movements of the Mongol leader is scarce. However, a recent study published in Science Report suggests that records and information indicate several clues that may explain this turning point for the army, particularly related to the cyclical changes in nature, especially concerning vegetation.
Detailed analyses have shown that the erratic cycles of nature at that time caused the climate to become cold and damp for an extended period, adversely affecting grazing habits and mobility. This significantly hampered the morale and progress of the Mongolian cavalry, according to the latest investigation results.
Below is a description of the golden age of this army, as well as how “Mother Nature” wisely intervened to halt their ferocious advance.
Before Marching to Hungary
When Genghis Khan departed from his life of conquest in 1227, he left a vast legacy for his son – Ögedei Khan – with a territory stretching from Northeast China to the Caspian Sea, bordering Europe and Asia, near present-day Northern Iran. The total area, according to calculations, was a staggering 11 million square miles.
“Even when considering the number of people he ruthlessly slaughtered, the nations he conquered and annexed, or the total area he controlled, Genghis Khan remains an incredibly formidable figure, having conquered double that of any king or general in history,” quoted historian Jack Weatherford in his book “Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.”
After his father’s death, Great Khan Ögedei continued the tradition and legacy left behind. Their footsteps gradually spread east and west, dominating the rest of Northwestern China and advancing toward Kievan Rus (present-day Ukraine), even crossing the largest desert in Asia – the Gobi Desert – with tens of thousands of soldiers.
By 1240, Kiev had been completely subdued by Ögedei, and the brutal army continued its march westward. The siege tactics employing speed and the relentless power of cavalry caused a series of European cities to fall and submit, notably exacerbated by the terror of the gunpowder invention from China at that time.
Feeling unsatisfied, in March 1241, the Mongol forces marched into Hungary. King Bela IV found himself powerless, fleeing from his palace in Pest (part of present-day Budapest), as their sharp swords stained with the blood of up to 1 million victims, from the Hungarian army, clergy, nobility, knights to the working-class peasants. According to records, this was one of the most brutal and bloody battles in the history of all dynasties worldwide.
In December 1241, Great Khan Ögedei unexpectedly passed away. To this day, many historians still debate whether Batu Khan – Ögedei’s cousin, who had led the western campaign earlier – returned to the capital Karakorum to select a new leader to guide the prosperity of the nation.
However, Batu did not do this; instead, he continued to pursue his ambitions, eager to engage in battles, demonstrating his strength and authority over the Golden Horde in present-day southern Russia. Meanwhile, Börjigin Khatun, Ögedei’s wife, assumed power as the Queen of the land.
An Unexpected End
A year later, everything suddenly took a sharp turn. The army unexpectedly changed direction southward, sweeping through present-day Serbia before returning to Russia. From that point on, although the subsequent generations of Khans maintained the ambition of dominance passed down from their predecessors, their overall military campaigns gradually came to a close.
Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the reasons behind the Mongol army’s halt at the thresholds of western nations, but the team of analysts, as mentioned, dismisses all these theories, arguing that no evidence is compelling enough to explain the entire process.
Specifically, they collected bark samples from five different regions bordering both Asia and Europe to seek any information or traces about the climate at that time – when the Mongol army was at its peak.
Plants and trees are generally particularly sensitive to any changes in weather and climate conditions. During wet periods, they reinforce their roots with thicker bark or reduce their sturdiness during hot dry seasons, as evidence of dwindling underground water reserves.
Continuing, the scientists concluded that the climate in Hungary and neighboring countries was affected by an erratic cycle lasting three years of severe cold and dampness. The sudden increase in humidity during spring, along with previous melting ice, turned the plains and steppes of Hungary into swamps – a terrain nearly impossible for thousands of cavalry to navigate.
In 1242, the year marking the end of the Eastern European conquest campaign, was also when the phenomenon of “spontaneous” marshes became more prevalent than ever. Not only did this complicate movement, but it also severely impacted crop yields, leading to food shortages for both the population and Khan’s army. Gradually, famine ensued, causing thousands to perish.
According to expert assessments, it is likely that Ögedei’s commanders considered choosing an alternative route southward, with more favorable natural weather conditions and moderate dryness, while directing the Mongolian forces further away from Europe.
So what happened next with this army? The death of Great Khan Ögedei acted as a catalyst beyond control, leading to internal chaos within the royal family, conflicts among descendants and nobles, “fragmenting” and leaving no chance for reconciliation.
However, the descendants of this famous lineage continued to inherit, holding key positions in many other dynasties in India, China, Persia, and Siberia. Additionally, the Mongolian people still maintain their way of life in the Mongolian Autonomous Region, governed by the Chinese government, along with parts of Mongolia that still exist today, where Genghis Khan has become an immortal symbol, appearing on all forms of currency, as well as in economic activities like liquor, cigars, and even Ulaanbaatar International Airport.
Moreover, with the analytical capabilities supported by advanced technology today, scientists have been able to comprehensively evaluate historical weather and climate data, contributing significantly to uncovering new perspectives on how historical developments were influenced by nature. Not only do these impacts not always hinder progress, but sometimes unusual climates also facilitate expeditions or migrations, such as the Polynesians migrating and developing in the South Pacific, leading to the collapse of an ancient city in Mexico before the colonial period; or providing favorable circumstances for Attila’s Huns to instill terror in the Roman Empire 800 years before Genghis Khan’s era.
Ultimately, the research team concluded that: The withdrawal of the Mongol army affirmed the principle that even a small fluctuation in climate could be a significant objective cause, greatly influencing historical developments and events in the past. At the same time, this indirectly raises a subtle lesson valuable for today’s era regarding the impact of climate change on human life and the future.
