Greek Fire is one of the most influential military inventions in history, yet its formula remains a mystery to this day.
Simulation of the Eastern Roman Navy using Greek Fire to incinerate enemy ships. (Image: Greek City Times)
The Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, utilized Greek Fire since the 7th century to repel Arab invasions for many years, especially at sea. What made this devastating weapon unique was its ability to continue burning, even flaring up more intensely upon contact with water, hence it was also referred to as “sea fire,” according to All That’s Interesting.
How Was Greek Fire Created?
Greek Fire was created in the 7th century, likely invented by Kallinikos, a Jewish architect who fled from Syria to the capital city of Constantinople. This was a time when the Eastern Roman Empire was under attack from the Islamic forces of Muhammad, and several regions of Syria had been conquered.
Concerned about the Islamic forces continuing to occupy Constantinople, Kallinikos experimented with various materials until he discovered a liquid mixture that produced a devastating flame.
Kallinikos sent the formula to the Eastern Roman Emperor, and the authorities developed a weapon that operated like a syringe, propelling the incendiary mixture towards enemy ships.
Greek Fire weapon that operates like a syringe. (Image: Wikipedia)
Destructive Firepower
Greek Fire was not only effective but also extremely terrifying. In addition to its ability to continue burning in water, it produced a loud roar and released a lot of smoke, reminiscent of a dragon’s breath, causing enemies to “shudder in horror,” according to World History.
Greek Fire could also adhere to any surface. Anything on enemy ships, such as sails, rigging, hulls, and even people, would instantly ignite upon contact with it. Worse still, there was no easy way to extinguish the flames. This special incendiary liquid even spread more vigorously when it came into contact with water. Greek Fire could only be extinguished with a bizarre mixture of vinegar, sand, and old urine.
Kallinikos’s invention proved effective in repelling enemy fleets and ended the First Arab Siege of Constantinople in 678. It also achieved similar success during the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717 – 718).
Simulation of a handheld Greek Fire thrower. (Image: Wikipedia)
To this day, no one knows the exact components that made up Greek Fire. Its formula remains a state secret, passed down from generation to generation within the Kallinikos family and the Eastern Roman Emperors.
One thing is certain: Greek Fire is very complex. Even enemies who came into direct contact with this devastating weapon did not know how to replicate it.
Some scholars suggest that petroleum, quicklime, sulfur, potassium nitrate, and gunpowder might be among the components of Greek Fire, but to date, no recreation has achieved real effectiveness, according to Greek Reporter.
The mystery of Greek Fire continues to attract historians and scientists, who are still trying to uncover its formula. It is likely that American author and screenwriter George R.R. Martin drew inspiration from the legend of Greek Fire for the wildfire in his famous novel and television series, Game of Thrones.
Effectiveness Over Centuries
The Eastern Romans continued to use Greek Fire for centuries, and its application was not limited to naval battles. This secret weapon was also used in various ways on land.
A handheld version of Greek Fire, known as Cheirosiphon, resembled an ancient version of a flamethrower. The Cheirosiphon first appeared during the reign of Emperor Leo VI (886 – 912) and was used for self-defense as well as to ignite the wooden siege towers of enemies.
Additionally, the Eastern Romans filled clay jars with Greek Fire to throw at enemies like grenades.
Iron caltrops—metal devices with spikes scattered on the ground to hinder cavalry—were also soaked in Greek Fire by the Eastern Roman army to enhance their lethality.
Grenades and iron caltrops of the Eastern Romans. (Image: National Historical Museum of Greece)
From the 7th century until the fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, Greek Fire played a crucial role in the wars against invading forces, making it one of the most influential military inventions in history.
According to some historians, it was Greek Fire that helped the Eastern Roman Empire repel powerful enemies such as the Arabs, Bulgars, and Russians, thereby saving Western civilization as a whole.
