A 4,500-year-old diary from a foreman involved in the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza provides detailed accounts of daily activities, wages, and meals for the workers under his command.
Located on the Red Sea coast of Egypt, Wadi al-Jarf was a bustling center over 4,000 years ago. The historical significance of Wadi al-Jarf was reinforced in 2013 when researchers discovered 30 of the oldest papyrus scrolls in the world hidden in an artificial limestone cave there. These Red Sea scrolls are particularly significant in content. Not only do they unveil the past of Wadi al-Jarf as a busy seaport, but they also contain firsthand accounts from a man named Merer, who participated in the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza, according to National Geographic.
The dry conditions at Wadi al-Jarf helped preserve Merer’s papyrus scroll. (Photo: The Past).
The Wadi al-Jarf site was first discovered in 1823 by the British traveler and antiquities researcher John Gardner Wilkinson. In 2008, French Egyptologist Pierre Tallet led a series of excavations that identified Wadi al-Jarf as an important seaport dating back 4,500 years during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu, who built the Great Pyramid. Tallet’s team found that Wadi al-Jarf was a vibrant economic hub engaged in trading materials used to construct pyramids located 241 km away. Archaeological evidence from Merer’s diary is among the key findings.
Wadi al-Jarf consists of several distinct areas, stretching over several kilometers between the Nile River and the Red Sea. From the direction of the Nile, the first area is located about 4.8 km from the coast, containing 30 large limestone caves used for storage. This is where the papyrus scrolls were discovered. Continuing east for another 457 meters is a series of camps, followed by a large stone building divided into 13 parallel sections. Archaeologists speculate that this building was used for housing. Finally, along the coast is the harbor, which includes living quarters and storage spaces. Based on pottery and inscriptions found at the site, researchers have dated the harbor complex to the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, approximately 4,500 years ago. They believe the harbor was opened during the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu and was abandoned at the end of his son Khufu’s reign. Although operational for a short time, the harbor contributed to the construction of Pharaoh Khufu’s tomb.
Alongside the papyrus scrolls, many other significant archaeological discoveries at the site reveal the harbor’s importance. A large structure resembling a 183-meter-long pier indicates substantial investment in materials in the area. Tallet and his team also found 130 anchors, demonstrating the harbor’s bustling activity. From the harbor, Pharaoh’s ships traveled across the Red Sea to the Sinai Peninsula, rich in copper. Copper was the hardest available metal at the time, and the Egyptians needed it to cut the stone for the Pharaoh’s massive pyramid. When returning to the harbor, these Egyptian ships were filled with copper. Between trips, the ships were stored in the limestone caves.
After the Wadi al-Jarf harbor ceased operations around the time of Pharaoh Khufu’s death, a team from Giza sealed a chamber hewn from limestone. During the process of blocking the limestone cave, Merer’s papyrus records likely became trapped among the rocks. They remained buried in the desert for 4.5 millennia until their discovery during Tallet’s excavation in 2013. The Red Sea scrolls were found on March 24 of that year near the entrance of storage chamber G2. Tallet’s team collected a second and larger batch of papyrus that was wedged between the rocks in storage chamber G1.
The Red Sea scrolls contain several types of documents, but Merer’s records draw the most attention. As the foreman, Merer kept a diary of his team’s activities. It is a daily account of the work his team performed over a three-month period during the construction of the Great Pyramid.
Merer’s team comprised about 200 workers who traveled throughout Egypt, responsible for all tasks related to building the Great Pyramid. Notably, they were in charge of the limestone blocks used to clad the pyramid. Merer recorded in detail how they collected stone from the Tura quarry and transported it to Giza by boat.
The workers in Merer’s group would load the limestone blocks onto boats, navigate along the Nile, and monitor their count at the management area before transferring them to Giza. A fragment from the diary describes a three-day journey from the quarry to the pyramid site. The next day, Merer and the entire team would return to the quarry for another shipment.
Merer’s diary even reveals one of the architects of the pyramid. Ankhhaf, Khufu’s half-brother, held the title of “overseer of all the king’s works.” Merer also meticulously tracked the wages of the entire team. Since there was no currency under the Pharaohs of Egypt, wages were paid in grain, with the basic unit being rations. Workers received varying amounts based on their rank. According to the papyrus, the workers’ basic meal included bread made from yeast, flatbreads, various meats, dates, honey, legumes, and beer.
Historians have long debated the status of the large workforce that built the Great Pyramid. Many believe that the workers were slaves; however, the Red Sea scrolls provide contrary information. Merer’s detailed records of wages demonstrate that the pyramid builders were skilled laborers compensated for their work.
