Europe, from a geological and geographical perspective, is a peninsula or subcontinent that forms the westernmost part of the Eurasian landmass, or even Afro-Eurasia, depending on the viewpoint.
Overview of Europe
By convention, Europe is considered a continent, which in this case is more of a cultural distinction than a geographical one. To the north, it borders the Arctic Ocean; to the west, the Atlantic Ocean; to the south, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea; however, the eastern boundary is currently unclear. The Ural Mountains are often regarded as the geographical and tectonic boundary marking the divide between Asia and Europe. If classified as a continent, Europe is the second smallest in the world by area, approximately 10,180,000 km², only larger than Oceania. In terms of population, it ranks fourth after Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
World map indicating the location of Europe.
Geographical Location
Geographically, Europe is part of the larger landmass of Eurasia. The boundary of the European continent with Asia starts at the Ural Mountains in eastern Russia, and moving southeast is less defined, possibly marked by the Ural River or the Emba River. From there, the boundary continues to the Caspian Sea, then to the Kuma and Manych Rivers or the Caucasus Mountains, and finally reaches the Black Sea; the Bosporus Strait, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles complete the boundary with Asia. The Mediterranean Sea to the south separates Europe from Africa. The western boundary is the Atlantic Ocean, although Iceland, which is quite distant from the nearest points of Europe to Africa and Asia, is also considered part of Europe. Currently, the determination of the geographical center of Europe is still a subject of debate.
In practice, the borders of Europe are typically defined based on political, economic, and cultural factors. Therefore, the size and number of countries in Europe can vary depending on the definition used. Most countries in Europe are members of the Council of Europe, with the exceptions of Belarus and the Holy See (Vatican City).
The concept of the European continent is not uniform. Since Europe is not entirely surrounded by oceans, many regard it as merely a peninsula of the Eurasian landmass. Historically, the concept of a Christian territory was considered more significant than anything else for Europe.
Europe is divided into four regions: Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe.
In practice, Europe is increasingly referred to as a shorthand term for the European Union (EU) and its 27 current member states. Some European countries are applying for membership, while others are anticipated to begin negotiations in the future.
Topographical Features
Topographically, Europe comprises a group of interconnected peninsulas. The two largest peninsulas are the European “continent” and the Scandinavian peninsula in the north, separated by the Baltic Sea. Three smaller peninsulas (Iberia, Italy, and the Balkan Peninsula) stretch from the southern continent to the Mediterranean Sea, which separates Europe from Africa. To the east, the European mainland expands like a funnel toward the boundary with Asia, marked by the Ural Mountains.
The topography of Europe varies significantly even within relatively small areas. The southern regions are primarily mountainous, whereas the north features gradually lower terrain from the Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians through hilly areas to the broad, low plains in the north and fairly expansive regions in the east. This vast lowland area is known as the Great European Plain, with its heart located in the North German Plain. A highland area forms an arc along the northwestern maritime border, starting from the British Isles in the west and following the mountainous fjord-cutting axis of Norway.
This description has been simplified. Subregions like Iberia and Italy possess unique complexities, much like the European continent itself, where the topography includes many plateaus, river valleys, and basins, complicating the overall topographical description. Iceland and the British Isles are exceptional cases. Iceland is a distinct landmass in the northern seas considered part of Europe, while the British Isles were once connected to the mainland until changes in the seabed terrain separated them.
Given the generalizations that can be made about Europe’s topography, it is not surprising that historically, this land has been home to many distinct ethnic groups inhabiting separate territories with little intermingling.
Map of European countries in English.
Ecosystem of Europe
Flora
The primary vegetation in Europe is forest. The conditions in Europe are highly favorable for forest development. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Current warm the continent. Southern Europe experiences a warm and temperate climate, often with summer rainstorms. Mountain ranges also influence the conditions for biological development. Some ranges (Alps, Pyrenees) run east-west, allowing winds to carry significant amounts of moisture from the sea inland. Other ranges run north-south (the Scandinavian, Dinaric, Carpathian, and Apennine ranges), where rain primarily falls on the seaward slopes, resulting in lush forests on that side while the opposite side has less favorable conditions. Some areas in the European mainland have had few domesticated animals at various times, and deforestation for agricultural production has impacted the native animal and plant ecosystems.
Approximately 80-90% of Europe was once covered by forests. Forests extended from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Sea. Although more than half of Europe’s primary forests have been lost over centuries of colonization, Europe still retains 25% of the world’s forests (including the spruce forests of Scandinavia, vast pine forests in Russia, humid tropical forests in the Caucasus, and cork oak forests in the Mediterranean region). Recently, deforestation has been significantly curtailed, and reforestation efforts are increasing. However, in most cases, there is a preference for planting conifers rather than native deciduous trees because conifers grow faster. The farming and ranching practices favoring a single species over large areas have not supported diverse species growth within European forests. The amount of primary forest left in Western Europe is only about two to three percent of the total forest area (if including Russia, it would be five to ten percent). The country with the lowest forest cover is Ireland (8%), while the country with the highest is Finland (72%).
In continental Europe, deciduous forests dominate. The most significant species include beech, hornbeam, and oak. In the north, where taiga forests thrive, the most common tree is the larch. In the Mediterranean region, many olive trees are cultivated, which are particularly well-suited to the arid climate here. A prevalent species in Southern Europe is the cypress. Pine forests dominate in higher regions or as one moves north in Russia and Scandinavia, giving way to tundra as one approaches the Arctic. The Mediterranean region, with its semi-arid climate, has abundant scrub forests. A narrow east-west strip of the Eurasian steppe extends eastward into Ukraine and southward into Russia, terminating in Hungary and passing through the taiga forests to the north.
Fauna
In terms of fauna, many parts of Europe have seen the extinction of most large animals and top predators. The woolly mammoth and European aurochs went extinct before the end of the Neolithic period.
Today, wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are threatened with extinction. These species once roamed across Europe. However, deforestation has led to their decline. By the Middle Ages, bear habitats were confined to mountainous regions that were difficult to access and covered in dense forests. Today, brown bears primarily inhabit the Balkan Peninsula, Northern Europe, and Russia; a small number also remain in some European countries (Austria, Pyrenees, etc.), but in these places, their populations are scattered and marginalized due to habitat destruction. In the far north of Europe, polar bears can be seen. Wolves are the second most common carnivore in Europe after brown bears and are primarily found in Eastern Europe and the Balkans.
Key carnivore species in Europe include the Eurasian lynx, European wildcat, fox (especially the red fox), jackals, various marten species, European hedgehogs, snakes (viper, grass snake, etc.), and birds (owls, hawks, and other raptors).
Important herbivore species in Europe include snails, amphibians, fish, various birds, and mammals, such as rodents, deer, wild boar, as well as marmots, Alpine ibex, and chamois, which live in mountainous areas.
Marine life also plays a significant role in the ecosystem of Europe. Marine flora primarily consists of floating phytoplankton. Important marine animals in European waters include planktonic crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms, various shrimp, squid, octopus, fish, dolphins, and sharks.
Population in Europe
Most Europeans settled in this region before or during the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans coexisted to some extent during this period. The construction of Roman roads facilitated the mixing of indigenous European populations.
From ancient times, the people here have made significant advancements, inventing and crafting various tools to enhance their lives. By the 20th century, the European population exceeded 600 million, but it is currently undergoing a gradual decline due to various social factors.
In 2016, Europe’s population was estimated at 741 million according to the World Population Prospects, accounting for only 1/9 of the global population. A century ago, Europe comprised nearly 1/4 of the world’s population. Although the population in Europe has grown rapidly over the past century, other regions globally—especially Africa and Asia—have experienced much faster growth. Among the continents, Europe has a relatively high population density, second only to Asia. Monaco holds the title for the highest population density in the world.
Europe is home to the largest number of immigrants globally, with 70.6 million people, according to a report from the International Organization for Migration (IOM).
Language and Cultural Regions in Europe
The division into cultural and linguistic regions in Europe is less subjective than geographic divisions, as it reflects the cultural connections among the people living here. These can be divided into three main groups:
Germanic Europe
Germanic Europe is where Germanic languages are spoken. This area roughly corresponds to Northwestern Europe and parts of Central Europe. The predominant religion in this region is Protestantism, although there are regions where the majority of the population adheres to Catholicism (particularly Austria). This area includes the countries: the United Kingdom, Iceland, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, the Faroe Islands, the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the Flanders region of Belgium, the Swedish-speaking region of Finland, the autonomous region of Åland, and South Tyrol in Italy.
Slavic Europe
Slavic Europe is where Slavic languages are spoken. This area closely corresponds to Central and Eastern Europe. The main religions are Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and Islam. This region consists of the countries: Ukraine, Poland, Russia, Belarus, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Bulgaria.
Other Groups
In addition to the three main groups mentioned above, there are:
Celtic regions: Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, Cornwall (part of the United Kingdom); the Isle of Man (a dependency of the Crown); Ireland; Brittany (in France). These countries and areas have historically spoken Celtic languages and share a common culture to some extent (see the Celtic Revival). Galicia (in Spain) is also considered by some to be a Celtic region, where their original Celtic language disappeared several centuries ago.
Greece speaks Greek (which may also include the Greek community in Cyprus), Albania speaks Albanian, and Armenia speaks Armenian. These three languages form three distinct branches within the Indo-European language family. However, Greece may be classified as a Latin country due to its geographic and cultural ties to the Mediterranean region, or as part of the Slavic Orthodox group because the majority of its population adheres to Orthodoxy.
Ibero-Caucasus, a group that includes minority ethnicities throughout the Caucasus region (both north and south). The Ibero-Caucasus language group does not belong to the Indo-European language family. This group comprises ethnicities such as Georgians, Abkhazians, Chechens, Balkars, and several other smaller ethnicities from the Caucasus region.
Hungary speaks Magyar, a language related to Finnish and Estonian. Due to its geographical position, Hungary is classified as part of Central and Eastern Europe.
Finland and Estonia, due to their geographical location, are classified as Northern European countries, even though their languages belong to the Uralic language family alongside Hungarian (though not closely related).
