Until the late 18th century, sailing ships relied on the wind for transport, which was often unpredictable. People began to consider using a more consistent and powerful source of energy to replace the wind.
The History of Steamships
The Industrial Revolution in the early 18th century brought forth a manufacturing innovation in the maritime industry—the steam engine, a device that generates power. The steam engine was applied to maritime technology, leading to the creation of steamships.
Denis Papin’s steam engine (Image: library)
1. The First Inventors
Around 1700, Newcomen invented the “atmospheric” engine, but this type was too weak and cumbersome for maritime use. During this period, Denis Papin attempted to apply his steam engine invention to ships, but his prototype was sabotaged by envious sailors in 1707, leading Papin to abandon his project.
The practical steam engine was developed by James Watt around 1770, and in France, many sought to apply steam power for transportation on water. The Count of Auxiron and Count Follenay built steamships, but these vessels sank in the Seine River, likely due to sabotage by sailors fearing unemployment. By 1783, Count Jouffroy d’Abbans successfully launched the Pyroscaphe, demonstrating its operation on the Saône River for 15 minutes before thousands of spectators. Jouffroy d’Abbans sought government support, but the project was rejected by the French Academy, which was funding balloon experiments by Montgolfier. Consequently, the research on steamships was halted.
James Watt (Image: greatscotland)
While steamship research was forgotten in France, in the United States, pioneers began to explore steamship technology, as the nation had many wide rivers and lacked roads and railways. However, steam engines were still bulky and imperfect by the late 18th century, and there was little knowledge about applying power for water transport; inventors were primarily familiar with sails and rudders.
The first Americans credited with constructing steamships are James Rumsey and John Fitch. Rumsey attempted to install a steam engine on a boat in 1786 but unfortunately chose an unsuitable engine that sucked water from the front and discharged it at the back. After several failed attempts, he traveled to England, where he built another steamship. Rumsey died unexpectedly, halting his experiments, although his boat managed to achieve a speed of 4 knots on the Thames River during trials.
Following Rumsey, John Fitch is recognized as the first steamship builder. Seeking opportunities in the West, Fitch traveled to Pennsylvania to learn about steam engines. In 1785, he began constructing a paddle wheel steamship. Two years later, he installed an engine on a 14-meter-long vessel. For unknown reasons, Fitch changed his design to include vertical paddles, with the engine powering two sets of six paddles on each side, lifting and dropping to push water backward. Although this method was rudimentary, the trial on the river was successful. In August 1787, the vessel covered 40 miles at a speed of 4 miles per hour.
John Fitch (Image: pbs)
Thus, Fitch gained a unique position in steamship construction across New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Virginia. Confident in his success, Fitch planned to build a larger steamship, 18 meters long. In 1788, this ship was launched and successfully carried 30 passengers on a route from Philadelphia to Burlington. However, during this time, Fitch’s funds dwindled, and public interest in his invention waned. He attempted to construct a third vessel in 1790, which featured a better boiler and a simpler engine, navigating the Delaware River and receiving praise from the press in Philadelphia. Despite its clumsy propulsion, Fitch’s vessel succeeded mechanically, covering over 2,000 miles while carrying both passengers and cargo.
Fitch’s vertical paddle ship (Image: uh.edu)
When patent laws were enacted in 1791, Fitch was granted a <strong patent for the steamship, but similar patents were also awarded to Rumsey and Stevens, despite Fitch’s superior talent. Although frustrated and impoverished, Fitch continued to nurture his dream of steamships. Believing he might find more success in France, he sailed there in 1793. In France, Fitch sought a patent for his steamship invention but faced misfortune as the French Revolution hindered his experiments. Nevertheless, he influenced steamship development in that country. Fitch left ship designs with the American consul in Paris, who showed them to a young engineer and artist named Robert Fulton. Meanwhile, Fitch returned to the United States in fragile health. He attempted to engage public interest in steamship transport with an exhibition of a small steam-powered vessel, but people remained indifferent. Fitch retreated to Kentucky, became mentally ill, and died from an overdose of opium in 1798.
Fitch’s first steamship (Image: history)
2. The Inventors Stevens and Fulton
While Fitch’s steamships traveled the Delaware River, one observer recognized their unlimited potential—Colonel John Stevens. Initially, needing a means of transport from New York City to his property in Hoboken, Stevens decided to construct a steamship. He also identified several flaws in Fitch’s invention and, being wealthy, was able to implement the necessary improvements.
Stevens persuaded his brother-in-law, Robert Livingston, to invest in a steam engine at a New Jersey foundry, which they installed on a 60-foot (nearly 20-meter) boat. Their first trial in 1798 failed because the ship used a propulsion method similar to Rumsey’s. A second attempt also failed despite using vertical paddles at the stern, like Fitch’s design. The heavy machinery soon caused the fragile boat to break apart. Shortly after, Livingston was appointed as the U.S. Ambassador to France, while Stevens continued experimenting and became the best steam engine engineer in the United States by the early 19th century.
John Stevens (Image: wikipedia)
In 1802, Stevens installed a small steam engine on an 8-meter-long boat combined with a four-blade propeller. He used this vessel to make several trips from New York to Hoboken. A few years later, Stevens completed a second vessel with two propellers powered by a high-pressure engine he designed. His fame peaked when he finished constructing the Phoenix over two years. This vessel was 31 meters long and featured a massive engine. Stevens reverted to the old paddle wheel propulsion method and reinforced the ship by adding two masts for possible sail use.
Due to Fitch’s reputation, Stevens hesitated to operate the Phoenix in New York and opted to launch it at sea. The Phoenix successfully sailed from New York to Philadelphia. Thus, Stevens earned the distinction of being the first to complete an ocean voyage by steamship. However, this achievement garnered little attention as the American public was more focused on Robert Fulton’s steamship trials on the Hudson River. In the following years, Stevens specialized in building steam-powered ferries and also engaged in railroad development.
Robert Fulton was an artist who lived during the early steam engine era. As a result, Fulton abandoned art to become a canal engineer. By overseeing canal construction, Fulton developed ideas about boats and steam-powered transportation. He witnessed a steam-powered wheelboat designed by Symington in 1801, which was used to tow vessels along the river. At the same time, Fulton also showed interest in the design of the nuclear submarine Nautilus. However, after failing to gain attention and support from the government, Fulton returned to shipbuilding. It was during this decision that he met Livingston, the newly appointed U.S. Consul in France, who had also gained valuable experience in shipbuilding with Stevens. Fulton was also shown the design of Fitch’s boat, which was in the possession of this U.S. Consul. Therefore, their collaboration was likely to yield results.
Fulton began experimenting with propulsion methods and examining different hull designs. He perceived the boat and engine as a single unit rather than two separate entities. In 1803, Fulton completed a vessel measuring 23 meters long and 2.4 meters wide. The boat was anchored on the Seine River but broke apart before the test. The engine was salvaged and installed in a new, sturdier hull. Later that year, the new boat was launched. The first test was successful, as the boat moved unusually across the water thanks to two paddle wheels. However, the public regarded this trial as merely a new product rather than a significant breakthrough.
This success made Fulton the most well-known figure in steamships for four consecutive years. Meanwhile, Fulton traveled to England to meet with Boulton and Watt to inquire about purchasing a steam engine to bring back to the United States. During this period, there were laws in England prohibiting the export of such engines, which posed challenges for Fulton, but he gained considerable knowledge about steam engines.
Fulton’s Boat Diagram (Image: submarine)
In 1806, Fulton returned to the United States with extensive knowledge about canals, submarines, and ships. He began designing the hull of a ship. The following year, the ship was fitted with an engine manufactured by Watt. This vessel, named Clermont after Livingston’s estate in Hudson, had an unattractive appearance. It was essentially a flat-bottomed barge, lacking proper length proportions, with the engine located at the front, driving two uncovered paddle wheels each 15 feet long. As the ship sailed, water splashed all over the midsection.
On August 17, 1807, 40 passengers embarked on a round trip from New York to Albany without encountering any accidents. The ship traveled 150 miles in 32 hours, which meant the upstream speed of the vessel was 5 miles per hour. This trial run marked a significant milestone in maritime history and demonstrated the successful application of steam-powered transportation. More significantly than many other inventors, Fulton transformed steamboats into attractive vessels that met public demand. In subsequent trials, Fulton covered the paddle wheels and established passenger cabins with sleeping quarters and cooking facilities. As a result, the Hudson River Steamboat Company was formed. In September 1807, regular scheduled trips began, with tickets priced at $7 for the ride from New York to Albany. In the following years, two more steamboats were constructed to provide daily services between these two locations.
During the War of 1812, Fulton was tasked with building the first warship. This vessel was designed with two hulls placed side by side, with paddle wheels positioned in the middle and steel plates attached to the sides. Eventually, this warship remained unfinished even after the war ended, and Fulton passed away in 1815.
