Automobiles primarily revolve around the engine. The cargo vehicle invented by Nicolas Joseph Cugnot in 1770 truly embodies the meaning of the term “automobile,” which translates to “self-moving car.” However, it may be unnecessary to catalog the myriad steam-powered vehicles that followed, produced across the globe. Nonetheless, we acknowledge the vehicle designed by the French inventor Pecquer in 1828, as it was the first to be equipped with a differential gear. We also recognize another significant component, the steering wheel, invented by Bavarian Lankenoperger in 1817 (although the invention was credited to his compatriot Rudolf Ackerman, an industrialist in London, leading to common attribution of this invention to Ackerman). When discussing internal combustion engines, we refer to all automobile engines.
The first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine, operating on the four-stroke cycle devised by Beau de Rochas, was an old bicycle on which German engineer Gottlieb Daimler attempted to install his single-cylinder engine in 1885. Then, in 1886, another German engineer, Carl Benz, created a three-wheeled vehicle, achieving significant success. In 1886, to leverage Daimler’s patents, the company Panhard et Levassor was established in France, making it the first major automobile manufacturing company in the country. By 1894, the vehicles designed by these three inventors featured essential components arranged in a configuration that would later become classic.
However, many other manufacturers also entered the fray, especially De Dion – Bouton, who obtained a patent for rear-wheel drive using a chain in the same year of 1894; the following year, he introduced a battery ignition system. In 1895, it was also the first year that Daimler’s automobile was fitted with pneumatic tires, courtesy of Michelin. Notably, in 1897, Daimler invented the honeycomb radiator. In 1898, the manufacturer Louis Renault achieved immediate success with his passenger car, which was the first to feature a three-speed transmission, with one gear coupled directly. This vehicle also marked the first appearance of a direct current generator. By 1900, Boudeville completed the ignition magneto (up until then, the commonly used system was a hot tube ignited by a heated burner pressed deep into the cylinder).
Meanwhile, inventors continued to diligently research and refine electric vehicles. Their confidence in this formula was evident when, in 1899, one of them, Jenatzy, set an absolute speed record driving his car Jamais Contente (Never Satisfied) at a speed of 105.882 km/h. By the early 20th century, automobiles had liberated themselves from the shape of horse-drawn carriages; the 1901 Mercedes exemplified this transformation, initiated by Renault in 1898. This period also marked the beginning of mass automobile production: Ramson E. Olds produced 1,500 cars per year.
Nonetheless, technical advancements continued to progress. The early years of the 20th century witnessed the use of drum brakes and stamped sheet metal chassis (Daimler’s chassis in Germany, Arbel’s chassis from the Douai forge in France). Then, in 1904, the Vauxhall automobile introduced a gear shift lever mounted on the steering column. In 1905, Pierre Bossu invented the electric starter (however, it wasn’t until 1911 that Kettering utilized it on a Cadillac, leading to common attribution of this invention to Kettering). Also in 1905, American Christie invented front-wheel drive, and Truffault invented a friction shock absorber. That year also saw the introduction of windshields. Finally, in 1908, André Michelin proposed the idea of using twin tires for heavy vehicles. Fifteen years passed with many advancements, and 1913 marked a true turning point for the automobile industry, with Henry Ford launching the first mass assembly line. This was the Ford Model T, the first affordable car stripped of all unnecessary parts, with production reaching 18 million units. The mass production rule was applied so rigorously that every car was delivered to customers painted black. Ford famously stated, “Customers can have any color they want, as long as it’s black.”
Immediately after World War I, fully steel-bodied vehicles emerged in the U.S. (in France, it wasn’t until 1925 that Citroen adopted this, albeit with investments that nearly bankrupted the company). In 1922, Italian manufacturer Vincenzo Lancia introduced a different kind of car with a front suspension featuring independent wheels. Primarily, it was a mass-produced vehicle without a chassis, meaning the body acted as the chassis, allowing for an extremely low floor. In 1926, two young engineers, Jean A. Grégoire and Pierre Fenaille, launched the Tracta, the first car with front-wheel drive, operating successfully, particularly due to its synchronous connection, which was later applied in World War II for Jeep and other four-wheel-drive vehicles. That same year, the Delco ignition system (Delco, short for Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company, Ohio) began to replace the magneto ignition system.
The year 1928 witnessed innovation with the first synchronized transmission (Cadillac) and an unusual rocket-powered vehicle from the German manufacturer Adam Opel. The Czech Tatra was notable for many reasons; in 1931, it became the first mass-produced car with an aerodynamic body (prior German prototypes with droplet-shaped bodies created by Rumpler in 1921 and Benz in 1923 were not accepted). In 1932, Cotal invented the electromagnetic transmission. Then in 1940, Oldsmobile introduced the first automobiles with automatic transmission.
The most significant advancements were recorded after the end of World War II: in 1950, Britain produced the first gas turbine-powered automobile (Rover); in 1952, the first mass-produced cars with power steering emerged (Chrysler); in 1953, disc brakes were introduced on the British Jaguar during the “Twenty Four Hours of Le Mans.” By 1960, cars like the NSU Wankel featuring rotary engines and air-cushion vehicles were appearing.
From the 1970s onward, new generations of cars primarily focused on improving power output, reducing fuel consumption, and minimizing pollution, while increasing the role of electronic devices (by 1990, electronic systems accounted for 6% of a car’s price, a figure that tripled by 2000), as well as enhancing comfort, safety, refinement, and equipment: for example, seat belts (mandatory since 1973 in France), ABS braking systems, airbags (first introduced to the market by Mercedes in 1981), and catalytic converters (refined by General Motors in 1974), which became mandatory in many industrialized countries. Generally, mid-range vehicles began to catch up in terms of equipment and refinement previously reserved for luxury cars. The body design became streamlined to minimize aerodynamic drag, employing lightweight alloys or composite materials that also withstand impacts and corrosion well.
Finally, there are also plans for the development of external assistance systems for drivers, relying on pre-set information in the vehicle and signals obtained from outside (weather, congestion levels, etc.) to provide the driver with guidance and advice for the optimal route: in 1995, the Safrana Carmina was launched as the first car in Europe equipped with a GPS navigation system.
Regarding electric vehicles, which have been around for over 100 years, interest has resurfaced due to rising fuel prices and increasing pollution. However, the main issue that many manufacturers face is the energy reserve and cost of batteries; thus, for now, electric cars are primarily used in urban settings. Since 1993, the first French experiment in the field of “electric cars,” designed by Peugeot and recharged at public stations set up by EDF, has been conducted in La Rochelle. Finally, hybrid cars, which use both electric and thermal energy, are also being considered, such as the Swatchmobile, a project developed by Mercedes for the famous watch manufacturer.
