On August 6, 1806, the Holy Roman Empire of Germany officially came to an end when Emperor Franz II of the Habsburg dynasty abdicated the crown to become the founding Emperor of the Austrian Empire.
This marked the conclusion of nearly 1,000 years of existence for a peculiar institution, which the French philosopher Voltaire succinctly described: “This Holy Roman Empire is neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire in the true sense.”
An Unwilling Inheritance
Voltaire was absolutely correct. The Holy Roman Empire of later years had no connection whatsoever to the ancient Roman Empire of Julius Caesar or Augustus, nor did it share any ties with the Western Roman Empire or its Eastern Roman twin (commonly referred to as Byzantine) – the successor empires of ancient Rome. It was precisely due to this confusion that in the 15th century, the phrase “of the German nation” was added to the official title used by the Holy Roman Empire.
“Of the German nation”, rather than the original Roman of the Latins, or the Byzantine which incorporated much of Eastern Orthodoxy, also had significant differences from Western Rome under Vatican Christianity. Despite this, the identity concept from the term “Roman” still highlighted an element of inheritance from its origin – which is why the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation (often abbreviated as the Holy Roman Empire) appeared on the map of the old continent.
The last Emperor Franz II of the Holy Roman Empire, who was also the founding Emperor Franz I of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
This notion of inheritance officially began in 962, when Otto I the Great of the Liudolfinger dynasty was crowned by the Pope, establishing a new nation in place of the East Francia kingdom of the Carolingians. However, if we consider its deeper origins, we might trace it back to 800, when Charlemagne marched into Rome.
At that time, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed over 300 years earlier (in 476), following fierce attacks and destruction from tribes they referred to as “barbarians”: The Germans. The Franks of Charlemagne – the people who gave France its name, Francia – were among the most warlike and skilled rulers of the Germanic tribes.
Charlemagne entered Rome after having unified all the territory of modern-day Germany and France before leading his army down into the Lombardy region of Italy. Perhaps he had no clear conception of empire when he met Pope Leo III – whom he intended to overthrow. However, as European chroniclers recount, the Pope acted with great tact. The leader of the West personally welcomed Charlemagne outside the city of Rome. Then, two days later, during a ceremony at St. Peter’s Basilica, while Charlemagne was praying, the Pope came from behind and placed the crown on the head of the Frankish king, declaring: “God crowns you, Emperor! May the great Emperor who has brought peace to the Romans live for a hundred years and achieve everlasting victory.”
The clergy echoed: “May the king blessed by God – the Emperor of the Roman people – live long and triumph forever!” Then, Pope Leo III knelt in prayer, following an ancient ritual dating back to the Roman Emperor Diocletian.
In other words, to protect both himself and Rome, Leo III, “on behalf of God,” conferred the title of Roman Emperor to the king of the “barbarians.” He had no other choice. Conversely, despite being initially surprised and somewhat angered, Charlemagne quickly realized that this coronation brought significant benefits to the empire he was building, the Carolingian Empire. This was a clear advantage in governance, as temporal power was supported and reciprocated by spiritual authority – a core factor that had previously led Roman Emperor Constantine to recognize Christianity as the state religion.
Habsburg Castle in Switzerland.
All and Nothing
However, Charlemagne died too early to revive the Western Roman Empire in its true sense (though his acceptance of the imperial title implied a public opposition to the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantines, who always considered themselves the legitimate heirs). After his death, his sons failed to continue his legacy, and the vast territory of the “Carolingian Empire” quickly fragmented into smaller pieces.
Until Otto I of the Liudolfinger dynasty successfully overthrew the Carolingian dynasty to receive the imperial title from the Pope, the territory he effectively ruled was limited to East Francia. After that, chaos continued to escalate. Just as the Capetians in France had to gradually build their monarchy under the constraints of much stronger vassals, many later emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were actually elevated to the throne by significantly more powerful supporters (as assessed by historians compiling the book “Western Civilization”).
Understandably, the Holy Roman Empire was a form of supranational entity, made up of many parts loosely combined, especially after the era of the Crusades – when France, England, and Spain began to form centralized monarchies. The head of the Holy Empire was the Emperor, but this Emperor was elected by the Electors, rather than being hereditary at first. Thus, the power of the Holy Empire did not reside in the hands of the Emperor, nor in any single Elector, and there was certainly no parliamentary system. Each duchy, principality, or county was effectively self-governing, even in their submission to or rebellion against the Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire was neither a federation nor strictly an alliance of multiple nations. It was simply a combination based on the somewhat vague factor of “the German nation,” and was often undermined by the fluctuating power of the great dynasties.
Statue of Emperor Otto I.
The most famous dynasty eventually stepped onto the political stage in 1440 – the Habsburg dynasty. Through political-military means and marriages, the Habsburgs became the true rulers of Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Croatia, the lands of Bohemia and Gaul, several small states in Italy, and were also the ruling house of the Netherlands alongside being emperors of both Austria and the Holy Empire as well as Mexico. However, the Habsburg royal family could only strive to maintain loosely allied forms within their territories, without being able to create unity or cohesion as a true imperial state.
Until the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed after World War I, this was the greatest shortcoming of the dynasty that held the crowns of both the Holy Empire and Austria-Hungary. They appeared significantly weaker than the Bourbon dynasty of France or even the outsider challengers – the Ottoman Empire. In terms of raising the banner of nationalism towards unification, both the Holy Empire and Austria-Hungary could not compare with the ambitions and determination of the young Prussian state that later emerged – a product of a region where the influence of the Holy Empire had become too weakened.
On that day, August 6, 1806, this peculiar dynasty and empire completed its historical role. It was not the ending that Charlemagne had hoped for. And perhaps, it was not what Otto I had envisioned either. But astonishingly, it lasted for nearly a thousand years.
*Charlemagne is considered the “father of nations” for both France and Germany. In France, he is remembered as Charles I. In Germany, he is known as Karl I. He also attempted to unify with the Eastern Romans through marriage but was rejected. In 803, he led the Franks to attack the ports of Byzantium, forcing Emperor Nikephoros I of the Eastern Romans to reconcile and recognize his imperial title. *Notable: Perhaps due to the “openness” tradition spanning thousands of years, the ruling ideology opposing all forms of autocracy of the Habsburgs was vehemently opposed by Adolf Hitler – an Austrian. When Hitler came to power, the SS and Gestapo continually terrorized the areas under Habsburg influence. Conversely, the former Austro-Hungarian royal family also organized fierce resistance movements. |
