The Great Journey of the Huns: Flattening Central Asia, Invading and Forcing Rome to Pay Tribute

After being weakened and divided by the Han Dynasty, a part of the Xiongnu people decided to migrate westward, opening a completely new chapter in the history of this warrior nation.

Between 48 to 60 AD, the Xiongnu fundamentally weakened and became exhausted after consecutive defeats against the Han, leading to the empire being split into two separate territories.

Map of the Northern and Southern Xiongnu territories after being divided by the Han.

At this time, the once-mighty Xiongnu empire was completely dominated by the Han dynasty. To survive, the Xiongnu tribes chose three distinct paths: some stayed to integrate with other minority ethnic groups in the north, others moved south to submit to the Han, becoming the Southern Xiongnu, and the rest embarked on a long journey westward.

The Xiongnu territory in the south was regarded by the Han as an autonomous region. The Chanyu here became vassals of the Han emperor and had to pay regular tributes, although some still rose against Han oppression, notably the rebellion of Chanyu An Guo in 94 AD.

By 216 AD, Cao Cao reorganized the entire territory of the Southern Xiongnu into five divisions: left, right, north, central, and south. Each division was allowed to appoint a noble from the Xiongnu as a leader but was placed under the supervision of a Han official. This aimed to prevent the seeds of rebellion from exiled Xiongnu, as well as to allow Cao Cao to utilize the Xiongnu as auxiliary forces for his cavalry.

The Southern Xiongnu completely submitted and became an autonomous territory of China.

These changes indirectly accelerated the process of Sinicization among the Southern Xiongnu. Most of the Xiongnu nobility here adopted the surname Liu and began to dress and live according to Han customs to maintain their prestige and influence. Many Southern Xiongnu nobles even claimed to be related to the Han royal family.

The Xiongnu who settled in the northern steppes were collectively referred to as the Northern Xiongnu. Although still outside the control of Chinese dynasties, under continuous attacks from the Han and Southern Xiongnu between 89 and 91 AD, the Northern Xiongnu could not withstand and were forced to undertake large-scale migrations westward.

The great migration of the Xiongnu began from the Mongolian Plateau, passing through Xinjiang, then Central Asia, crossing the vast steppes of southern Russia, and finally settling in the Danube Basin in Eastern Europe, covering a distance of over 10,000 km and lasting nearly 300 years.

The entire process of the Xiongnu’s westward movement was slow and gradual, divided into three main phases: the first phase, from 91 to 160, primarily reaching areas that are now part of Xinjiang; the second phase, from 160 to 373, reaching areas from the Aral Sea to the basins of the Volga and Don rivers in Russia; and the third phase, from 374 to 468, reaching Eastern Europe, with major settlements in what is now Hungary.

Phase One (91-160)

The Northern Xiongnu embarked on a great journey westward, covering 10,000 km over more than 300 years.

The first migration of the Northern Xiongnu westward was marked by the conquest of the Wusun Kingdom, one of 36 ancient states in the Western Regions (now parts of Xinjiang and eastern Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan), where they settled for 70 years. During this time, the Northern Xiongnu sent envoys to Eastern Han to propose a marriage alliance in 105 and 106 but were rejected both times.

The presence of the Xiongnu in this area has been confirmed by archaeologists through the discovery of their tombs in northern Xinjiang, from Lake Barkol to the Turfan region, and from the Hohhot area in Xinjiang to the eastern regions of Kazakhstan.

Around 160 AD, the Northern Xiongnu were attacked by the Xianbei, who regained parts of the territory of the former Wusun Kingdom. The Xiongnu had to continue migrating to more distant territories in Central Asia.

Phase Two (160-373)

During this period, although the Xiongnu had long disappeared from Chinese historical records, European historical documents first appeared, referring to them as “Huns”, noting their invasions in Central Asia and Eastern Europe during the 4th century AD.

In a span of 100 years, the Xiongnu repeatedly waged wars against the dynasties of Persia, Mesopotamia, and even the kingdoms of northern India for an extended period, earning the name “Huna” or “Sita Huna” in Indian historical texts.

The Xiongnu frequently waged wars with Persia and northern Indian kingdoms in Central Asia.

Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus recorded the fall of the Alans (an ancient nomadic people in Central Asia closely related to the Persians) under the attack of the Xiongnu: “In 350 AD, two armies of the Huns and Alans fiercely fought along the coast. The Huns were victorious, the king of the Alans was killed, the Alan kingdom was destroyed, and the surviving Alans had to submit to the Huns or flee to Rome. After the fall of the Alan kingdom, the Huns continued to move westward to the Volga and Don rivers over the next few years, to continue their direct assault on Europe.”

Phase Three (374-468)

From 374, the Xiongnu continued to advance westward, conquering the Eastern Goths, one of the two kingdoms of the ancient Germanic tribes in the Danube Basin, alongside the Western Goths, in the regions of modern-day Romania and Hungary. This was the time when Europe trembled before the hooves of the nomads from the east.

The first mark of the Xiongnu in Europe was the successful conquest of Eastern Goth territory.

After the Eastern Goths were destroyed, the Western Goths, like birds scared of a bent branch, fled for safety. In 376, they sent representatives to seek submission to the Western Roman Empire, which was granted by the Western Roman Emperor. From then on, the Western Goths surged into Roman territory, leaving the Danube Basin to the Xiongnu.

After capturing the Danube Basin, the Xiongnu continued to surge southward, invading the Eastern Roman Empire all the way to the walls of Constantinople. In this dire situation, the Eastern Roman emperor had to accept submission to the Xiongnu, paying an annual tribute of 2,100 gold coins and ceding most of the Balkan Peninsula to them.

In 444, the Xiongnu Empire in Europe was officially established in the Danube Basin, led by Chanyu Attila, who was nicknamed “the Scourge of God” by Western historians. The borders of the Xiongnu stretched across both Europe and Asia, from the Persian Gulf in the east to the Rhine River in the west, extending south to the Balkan Peninsula and bordering the Baltic Sea to the north. The emperors of both Eastern and Western Rome and the chieftains of many small states in Europe were compelled to submit and pay annual tributes to the Xiongnu Empire.

The cavalry of the Xiongnu continued to rampage across Europe for another 20 years, until Attila’s death.