How Great Was the Aztec Empire and Who Was Its “Father”?
Before being defeated by the Spanish in 1521, the Triple Alliance led by the Aztecs brought the vast Mesoamerican region through a prosperous trade system, creating a Central American culture that remains impressive to this day…
[The historical region of Mesoamerica includes the present-day countries of northern Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Belize, and central to southern Mexico. For thousands of years, this area was inhabited by groups such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec peoples – Source: National Geographic].
Left image: Statue of a feathered serpent baring its teeth at the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, in Mexico City. The massive temple complex was dedicated to Tlaloc, the rain god, and Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. Source: KENNETH GARRETT – Right image: Located in Mexico City, the Tlatelolco temple belonged to a separate city from Tenochtitlan. When the Spanish gained control of the area, they demolished the temple and used its stones to build the Santiago Tlatelolco Church. (Source: CAVAN / ALAMY / ACI).
After the fall of Tenochtitlan—the capital of the Aztec Empire—a native poet composed a poignant narrative about the occupation of the Aztec capital. Written in the Nahuatl language, this is the earliest account of the Aztecs’ suffering in war and their defeat exactly 500 years ago in 1521:
“Our enterprise, our city, is lost and dead.
The shields of our warriors could not save it.
We had to chew on dry twigs and salt grass;
And had to swallow lizards, rats, and worms…”
What remains of Tenochtitlan today lies beneath the thriving capital of Mexico—Mexico City—one of the most populous cities in the world.
Surrounded by modern architecture, the archaeological site of Templo Mayor (part of the ancient Tenochtitlan) continues to reveal more about the Aztec city and its inhabitants—a reminder of the people and culture that were subdued and assimilated by the colonial regime of New Spain.
Many European chroniclers focused on the conquest by the Spanish Marquis Hernán Cortés and the events of 1521. However, for archaeologists and historians, there is a greater focus on the Aztecs themselves; on how an alliance between ancient cities in Mesoamerica quickly rose to dominate a vast region in history.
The Aztecs: A Great Empire
The name Aztec was first coined by an outsider. The Aztecs referred to themselves as Mexica (also known as Culhua-Mexica); or Tenochca (the name for their capital city, Tenochtitlan).
1. The Codex of the Aztecs
In the early 1800s, German scientist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt coined the term for the people of Tenochtitlan based on the word “Aztlán,” the traditional name of the ancestral homeland of the Mexica. Archaeologists have yet to determine the exact location of Aztlán, but most place it in northern Mexico.
Much of what is understood about Mesoamerica during the Aztec period comes from written sources by Mexica themselves or by Spaniards writing after 1519.
According to ancient records of the Mexica (known as Codex), the Mesoamerican region was rich with diverse cultures and cities, among which the Aztec culture stood out as the most prominent and affluent. The Mexica (or Aztecs) portrayed themselves as a people born to wield power. After overcoming countless obstacles, they eventually controlled a vast empire.
The Codex documented the ancestry, work, faith, and practices of the Mexica. However, during the Spanish invasion of the 16th century, many ancient records were destroyed, leaving only 5 “surviving” Codex—these valuable records were looted by the Spaniards and taken to Europe, where they are now housed in various museums.
The production of such records continued after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Some were written by Spanish colonizers as a means to better understand and control Mesoamerican peoples.
Left image: Codex Mendoza, preserved today in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, England, commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy of New Spain, after the conquest – Right image: Codex Mendoza contains detailed descriptions of the tributes that Moctezuma II, who ruled the Aztecs from 1502 to 1520, received. From the 400 cities under his control, he received many gifts. In Codex Mendoza, the pictographs correspond to the names of the cities, and the images alongside represent their tribute to the ruler, Moctezuma II. (Source: BODLEIAN LIBRARY OXFORD / DAGLI ORTI / AURIMAGES)
One of the most famous records is the Mendoza Codex, created in 1542 for Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor. This document contains Aztec writing alongside texts written in Spanish. The first part of the Mendoza Codex lists a series of wars or conquests grouped by each Aztec leader. The second part lists the tribes that were conquered by the Spaniards.
However, no documents of this type have been found related to the two ancient areas of Lake Texcoco and Tlacopan—two regions that provided abundant resources for the ancient capital of the Aztec Tenochtitlan, where the Aztecs established Tenochtitlan and made it prosperous with a population of 150,000 to 300,000 people.
Food, raw materials, and textiles came from areas near the city, while luxury items such as gold, sweet gum, cocoa, and precious feathers came from far corners of the vast empire.
2. The Power Center of the Triple Alliance
The Aztecs were originally nomadic people and migrated to several locations before settling on the islands of Texcoco (also known as the Valley of Mexico) under the control of the nearby city of Azcapotzalco.
The Aztecs were once “mercenaries” and were known for their ferocity in battle. They spoke Nahuatl—the dominant language in central Mexico around the mid-1350s. Nahuatl was also the language of the powerful Toltec civilization, which ruled the region from the 10th to the 12th century and sought to connect with their illustrious ancestors.
Around 1325, the Mexica (or Aztecs) established the capital Tenochtitlan and made it their capital.
Records state that when the Aztecs saw an eagle perched on a cactus in the marshy land near the southwestern border of Lake Texcoco, they considered it a sign to build their settlement there. They drained the marshy land, constructed artificial islands so they could grow food, and established the foundation of the capital Tenochtitlán in 1325 AD—later Tenochtitlán became the invaluable “gem” for centuries.
Although the new city prospered, along with other cities including Texcoco, it remained under the domain of Azcapotzalco until the lord of Azcapotzalco died in the early 15th century.
When disputes arose over the succession, the dominance of Azcapotzalco came to an end.
In 1428, under the leadership of Itzcoatl, the Aztecs formed a Triple Alliance with the Texcoca and Tlacopan peoples to defeat their strongest rival for influence in the region, the Tepanec people, and conquer the Tepanec capital of Azcapotzalco. Itzcoatl’s successor, Montezuma I, who came to power in 1440, was a great warrior and is remembered as the father of the Aztec Empire.
By the early 16th century, the Aztecs dominated over 500 small states, with a population of around 5 to 6 million, through conquest or trade. Tenochtitlán at its peak had over 140,000 residents and was the most populous city ever to exist in Mesoamerica.
Initially, Texcoco and Tenochtitlan held the top positions in the hierarchy, with Tlacopan as a subordinate to both. Over time, Tenochtitlan (meaning “place of the gods”) of the Aztecs became the most powerful, and the ruler Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (Moctezuma II) [Ruler of the Aztec Empire from 1502 to 1520] was the most powerful member of the Triple Alliance in the 1500s.
Moctezuma II – Ruler of the Aztec Empire from 1502 to 1520.
Moctezuma II saw himself as the most powerful figure in the Triple Alliance, thus proposing the idea of an empire centered around the Mexica, an empire that later became widely known as the Aztec Empire.
Looking back to the early 1400s, the Triple Alliance took control of Azcapotzalco and other peoples. Some were willing to accept this transfer of power, but others had to resort to force to be subdued.
No significant territorial expansion occurred until a major famine struck the Valley of Mexico from 1450 to 1454. The alliance needed more land to produce food and began conquering city-states.
This process accelerated under Axayacatl – the ruler (tlatoani) of the Aztec, who also led the Triple Alliance.
[Although often translated as “king” or “emperor,” the role of tlatoani (ruler) is inherently less absolute and requires multifaceted leadership].
Axayacatl actively intervened in the military, religion, and administration, serving as both the supreme commander and the chief priest of the empire.
The typical crops of the Aztecs included maize, beans, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, and avocados; additionally, they fished and hunted local wildlife such as rabbits, birds, snakes, prairie wolves, and wild turkeys. They possessed a relatively complex agricultural system (including land intensification and irrigation methods) along with a powerful army, enabling the Aztecs to establish a successful state and later a great empire renowned in history.
3. The Fall of a Great Empire – The Footprint of Europeans
In 1481, Tizoc succeeded his brother Axayacatl as the leader of the Aztec. Although Tizoc’s reign was relatively short, during his time, he suppressed the uprising of the Matlatzincan peoples in the Valley of Toluca and commissioned the construction of the Great Pyramid in Tenochtitlan.
The famous Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan of the Aztecs. (Source: Quetzalcoatl1/Shutterstock)
Ruler Tizoc upheld the ancient tradition of pyramid building to honor and worship their gods. Mesoamerican peoples constructed pyramids from around 1000 BC until the Spanish invasion in the early 16th century.
[The most well-known Latin American pyramids include the Sun Pyramid and the Moon Pyramid at Teotihuacán in central Mexico; the Castillo at Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán Peninsula; the Great Pyramid in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan; the pyramid at Cholula; and the great temple at Cuzco of the Inca in Peru – Source: History Channel].
Reliefs carved depict Tizoc conquering 15 city-states. His brief reign saw uprisings against his rule and how he triumphed and consolidated his empire’s power.
According to historians, the greatest ruler of the Aztec Empire must be Ahuitzotl – the successor of Tizoc – who was the eighth ruler of the Aztec in the history of this empire.
After ascending to the throne, Ahuitzotl expanded the borders of the Aztec Empire to present-day Guatemala, coming into contact with the lands of the Maya. Upon Ahuitzotl’s death in 1502, Moctezuma II became the Aztec ruler and extended the influence of the Triple Alliance into Zapotec territories towards the Pacific.
The Triple Alliance (often referred to as Aztec due to the prominence and wealth of the Aztecs) conquered lands to control trade routes and raw materials. Scholars believe that religion also played a significant role in the expansion since the Aztecs demanded human sacrifice (offerings) to maintain cosmic order. (Source: NG MAPS)
During Moctezuma II’s reign, the Spanish began to eye and invade this magnificent empire.
The first Europeans to arrive in Mexican territory were Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, who came to Yucatán from Cuba with three ships and about 100 men in early 1517. In March 1519, Spanish Marquis Hernán Cortés landed in the town of Tabasco, where he learned from the locals about the great Aztec civilization.
Moctezuma II remained in power until Hernán Cortés invaded the Triple Alliance and established the Veracruz colony on April 22, 1519.
4. Once a Great Empire…
Faced with the Spanish invasion, Mesoamerican cities chose different paths for survival. Some, like Tlaxcala, allied with the Spanish, while others, like Mexico, chose to fight.
As the world reflects on the events of 1521, there remains much to explore about the story of the Mexica (Aztecs) and their fate when the Spanish arrived in the Americas.
The Aztecs, a nomadic tribe in northern Mexico, arrived in Mesoamerica around the early 13th century. From their magnificent capital, Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs emerged as a dominant force in central Mexico, developing a diverse social, political, religious, and commercial organization, bringing many cities in the region under their control by the 15th century.
They were highly advanced socially, intellectually, and artistically. It was a highly structured society with a strict class system; at the top were the nobles, while at the bottom were serfs, slaves, and bondsmen.
The invaders led by the Spanish conqueror Hernán Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire by force and captured Tenochtitlan in 1521, marking the end of the last great indigenous civilization of Mesoamerica.
After his victory, Hernán Cortés leveled Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City (the present-day capital of Mexico) on its ruins, quickly becoming the leading center of Europe in the New World.
