The Mystery of the Disappearance of Ancient Civilizations

Despite the efforts of archaeologists and historians, the collapse of several civilizations throughout human history remains a mystery.

Troy – Myth or Reality

The story of Troy is linked to two epic poems of Homer: Iliad and Odyssey in Greek mythology. While many ancient civilizations left tangible remnants for posterity, Troy is often seen as a tale from the imagination of the ancients, as no trace of the famed city associated with the eternal war and the legendary wooden horse has been found in the modern world.

Ruins of Troy

However, recent studies by historians suggest that Troy was indeed real. They assert that over 3,000 years ago, Troy sat atop a hill near a harbor leading to the Aegean Sea (the port has since been buried by sand). Greek, Italian, and Portuguese merchants would dock at Troy to resupply and rest on their journeys from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Newly discovered archaeological remnants, such as fragments of ships and iron stakes scattered about 4 km from the site of Troy (in present-day Turkey), provide evidence that Greek warships once anchored here before attacking the city, just as Homer recounted in the epic Iliad.

The legendary wooden horse of Troy.

Why did Troy disappear? This question has perplexed generations of scientists seeking answers.

Professor Amos Nur from Stanford University states: “We believe that natural disasters, particularly earthquakes, played a significant role in the mysterious disappearance of many civilizations.” Other scientists from the American Geophysical Union have developed a completely different hypothesis. While studying the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age, they propose that a major earthquake could be the primary culprit behind the disappearance of cities like Troy, Mycenae, and Knossos. These cities vanished from the map of the world between 1,225 and 1,175 BC, a claim supported by the American Geophysical Society.

Harappa Culture – The Fortifications of Baked Clay

An ancient civilization within the broader context of the Indus River civilizations thrived from approximately 2,800 to 1,800 BC. Historical records note its advanced development in economics, trade, agriculture, art, and writing. Yet, this culture disappeared, and the reasons remain unclear, although numerous temples discovered attest to its existence.

The most popular hypothesis is that it was due to invading Aryan nomads. A second widely accepted theory points to climatic changes. Around 1,800 BC, the climate in the Indus River basin shifted to become colder and drier, causing the Ghaggra-Hakra River to dry up, redirecting the water sources of the river system toward the Ganges Plain, leading to the decline of the Harappa civilization.

Other theories suggest that the decline of the Indus civilization was related to the end of the Sumerian kingdom and the cessation of trade relations with that kingdom, or that military conflicts and diseases contributed to the culture’s demise. The definitive cause of this decline remains inadequately explained. Professor Amos Nur and his colleague Prasad, when examining seismic history, noted catastrophic earthquakes striking the coastal region near the border between India and Pakistan. According to their hypothesis, one or more significant tremors could have displaced the earth’s crust, blocking the flow of a major river in the area. Agricultural production was destroyed, severe flooding occurred, and ultimately cities were buried under silt.

Walls of Harappa Culture. (Photo: Global Heritage Fund)

The Maya Civilization

The Maya civilization is a remarkable ancient civilization alongside the Andean civilization, established by the Maya people, an indigenous tribe in the Americas, around 1,000 BC. The Maya civilization achieved a high level of development not only in state-building but also in architecture, mathematics, astronomy, and timekeeping. Archaeological evidence shows that the Maya developed the concept of zero by 357 AD, nearly 900 years before it was recognized in Europe, accurately determining the length of a year, the time it takes for the Earth to complete one orbit around the sun, significantly more accurate than calendars in use in Europe at that time. Moreover, the Maya religion is unique due to its combination of rituals with cosmic cycles.

Illustration of the Maya Tzolk’in Calendar. (Photo: Yucatan Adventure)

Like Troy and Harappa, two cities Quirigua (present-day Eastern Guatemala) and Benque Viejo, once cultural centers of the Maya during their peak, suddenly vanished at the end of the 9th century BC. Many historians believe that this disappearance resulted from ongoing wars, initially among the Maya tribes for power and later against the invading Spanish Empire. However, research by geophysicist Robert Kovach presents another destructive cause: a devastating earthquake.

Chan Chan Civilization

According to research documents, the Chan Chan civilization originated around 850 BC and reached its peak during the early 15th century.

Chan Chan Civilization

However, this civilization declined when the Inca Empire invaded. Today, humanity still marvels at the ruins of the Chan Chan civilization, including the giant, peculiar designs on the Nazca Plateau.

Many theories have been proposed surrounding these drawings. Many believe that these strange illustrations served as a means for ancient people to communicate with extraterrestrial beings.

The planet’s violent outbursts have historically caused destruction, but today, it is also identified as a factor leading to the mysterious disappearances of many civilizations throughout human history.

Indus Valley Civilization, Pakistan

The Indus Valley Civilization is one of the greatest architectural wonders created by humanity in the ancient world (known for its significant influence as the Harappan Civilization). It is one of the largest cities on the continent.

Indus Valley Civilization, Pakistan

Located in present-day Pakistan, the Indus Valley Civilization thrived around 4,500 years ago and was forgotten until its ruins were excavated in the 1920s.

With sophisticated and advanced technologies, this civilization was remarkable for its urban sanitation systems and evidence of impressive levels in engineering, mathematics, and even dentistry.

By around 1500 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had largely faded from memory, possibly due to invasions by Indo-European tribes or agricultural collapse due to climate change.

Khmer Empire, Cambodia

As one of the most powerful empires in Southeast Asia, the Khmer civilization influenced areas from present-day Cambodia to Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Malaysia. Today, it is known as Angkor.

Aside from the stone-carved monuments, no written records exist, so our understanding of this ancient civilization is pieced together from archaeological investigations, reliefs on temple walls, and external documents including those from China.

Khmer Empire, Cambodia

The Khmer people integrated both Hinduism and Buddhism in the construction of temples, towers, and other complex structures like Angkor Wat, which was dedicated to the god Vishnu.

Invasions by enemies, deaths from plagues, water management issues affecting agriculture, and power struggles among royal families may have contributed to the decline of this empire.

Anasazi, New Mexico, USA

“Anasazi” is the modern name for the ancient Pueblo people, who lived in the “Four Corners” region of the southeastern United States at the intersection of the states of Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado.

Their civilization emerged around the 12th century BC and is still known for its stone and brick structures built along cliffs, including Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde National Park, the White House Ruins, and Pueblo Bonito at the northern edge of Chaco Canyon. This architecture developed into multi-story apartments that could only be accessed by rope or ladder.

Anasazi, New Mexico, USA

The ancient Pueblo people did not necessarily “disappear,” but they abandoned their homeland for reasons that remain unresolved. Many experts, as well as modern Pueblo people—who consider the ancient Pueblo as their ancestors—believe that deforestation and drought led to internal conflict and war that caused the Pueblo to leave their homeland.

Olmec Civilization, Mexico

Veracruz and Tabasco in the tropical lowlands of southern central Mexico were once home to a powerful pre-Columbian civilization that constructed massive capital cities, where bloodshed and human sacrifice took place, and where the concept of zero was invented, essentially laying the foundation for all Central American cultures.

Olmec Civilization, Mexico

The Olmec civilization may even be the first in the Western Hemisphere to develop a writing system, and it could have invented both the compass and the Central American calendar. Dating back to around 1500 BC, the Olmec civilization was not discovered by historians until the mid-19th century. Its disappearance is believed to be due to environmental changes caused by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, or possibly agricultural decline.

Aksumite Empire, Ethiopia

Aksumite Empire, also known as the Kingdom of Aksum or Axum, was a trading empire primarily engaged with the Roman Empire and ancient India, ruling regions in Northwest Africa, including present-day Ethiopia since the 4th century BC.

Aksumite Empire, Ethiopia

Once thought to be the home of the Queen of Sheba, the Aksumite Empire may have been a powerful indigenous nation in Africa, encompassing most of present-day Eritrea, northern Ethiopia, Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia, and northern Sudan.

This kingdom in Ethiopia is not a myth; it was indeed a trade powerhouse. By accessing both the Nile River and trade routes in the Red Sea, Aksum’s commerce flourished, and by the beginning of the Common Era, much of Ethiopia was under Aksumite rule. The strength and prosperity of Aksum allowed them to expand into Arabia. In the 3rd century, a Persian philosopher noted that Aksum was one of the four greatest kingdoms in the world, alongside Rome, China, and Persia.

Aksum accepted Christianity shortly after the Roman Empire and continued to thrive throughout the early Middle Ages. Had it not been for the expansion of Islam, Aksum might have continued to dominate East Africa. After the Arab conquest of the Red Sea coast, Aksum lost its major trading advantage to neighboring states. Naturally, they could only blame themselves. Just a few decades earlier, the king of Aksum had allowed followers of the Prophet Muhammad to take refuge, thereby facilitating a religion that would ultimately undermine his own empire.

Minoan Civilization, Crete

Named after the legendary King Minos, the Minoan civilization of Crete was rediscovered in the early 20th century, revealing fascinating pieces of an ancient civilization that began to flourish over 7,000 years ago, reaching its peak around 1600 BC.

Minoan Civilization, Crete

As one of the trade centers that emerged around 2700 BC, it is believed to be an advanced civilization with magnificent palaces rebuilt multiple times after a series of disasters (possibly earthquakes and the eruption of Thera).

One of those palaces is the Knossos Palace, the “labyrinth” associated with the legend of King Minos, and is currently a major archaeological site attracting tourists. However, around 1450 BC, a disaster struck that rendered the Minoan civilization unable to recover and led to its collapse.

Cucuteni–Trypillia Civilization, Ukraine & Romania

The largest settlements in Neolithic Europe were built by the Cucuteni–Trypillia people of present-day Ukraine, Romania, and Moldova. This mysterious civilization thrived between 5500 BC and 2750 BC, characterized by pottery and a strange habit of burning their villages every 60 to 80 years.

Cucuteni – Trypillian Civilization, Ukraine & Romania

Villages were subsequently rebuilt on the ashes of the old village. Approximately 3,000 archaeological sites of the Cucuteni – Trypillian civilization have been identified. Like many other civilizations, the Cucuteni – Trypillian civilization may have been wiped out by climate change, but another hypothesis suggests that they gradually blended with other ethnic groups until their unique culture disappeared.

Nabatean Civilization, Jordan

The ancient Nabatean civilization thrived in southern Jordan, Canaan, and northern Arabia from the 6th century BC, when the nomadic Nabateans speaking Aramaic began to migrate from Arabia.

Their remnants are carved into sandstone cliffs in Jordan and are renowned for their irrigation techniques. The management of a complex system of dams, canals, and reservoirs enabled them to expand and thrive in a harsh desert environment.

Nabatean Civilization, Jordan

They were invaded by the Romans in 65 BC and lost sovereignty over their land by 106 AD, after which it was renamed the Kingdom of Arabia Petraea.

Around the 4th century AD, the Nabateans abandoned Petra, the reason for which remains unclear. It is believed that after centuries of foreign rule, the Nabatean civilization declined as Greek peasant groups converted to Christianity before their lands were completely seized by Arab invaders.

Cahokia, Illinois, USA

Few Americans realize that there are remnants of an ancient civilization right in the USA – in Illinois, just across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Missouri.

Cahokia Mounds are all that remains of a native civilization of the Mississippi. The inhabitants of Cahokia did not leave written records but preserved this world heritage through artificial mounds covered in grass, as well as pottery and other artifacts.

Cahokia, Illinois, USA

Cahokia was once the largest urban center north of Mesoamerica, among the major cities of Mexico, and may have housed about 40,000 people by 1250. Cahokia was abandoned around 100 years before Europeans arrived in North America, possibly due to environmental factors or invasions by other peoples.

Mycenaean Civilization, Greece

Unlike the Minoans, the Mycenaeans did not thrive in trade. The peak of this civilization coincided with the disappearance of the Minoan civilization.

The Mycenaean civilization endured 5 centuries of dominance before disappearing around 1100 BC.

Mycenaean Civilization, Greece

According to Greek mythology, Mycenae defeated the mythical city of Troy. Artifacts from this empire have been found as far away as Ireland.

In reality, this culturally and economically powerful civilization left behind a wealth of architecture, art, and artifacts. What happened to the Mycenaean state? It could have been due to natural disasters, but most experts believe it was likely due to foreign invaders or internal conflicts that led to the empire’s disappearance.

Moche Civilization, Peru

The Moche civilization developed a perfect agricultural society with palaces, pyramids, and intricate irrigation canals along the northern coast of Peru from around 100 to 800 AD.

Although they did not have written records, they left behind some clues about their history. These include incredibly detailed pottery and monumental architecture.

Moche Civilization, Peru

In 2006, a Moche chamber was discovered that appeared to have been used to store human remains.

Many hypotheses exist regarding why the Moche civilization vanished, but the most common explanation is the influence of El Niño, a harsh weather pattern characterized by alternating periods of flooding and severe drought.

Clovis Civilization, North America

Few people are aware of the Clovis people, a prehistoric Native American group believed to be among the first inhabitants of North America.

Artifacts, bones, and stone blades are the only clues suggesting this civilization once existed.

Clovis Civilization, North America

In the past 30 years, remnants of ancient human activity have been discovered, but the reason for their disappearance remains a mystery. Some speculate that the Clovis people overhunted, impacting their food supply, or that climate change, disease, and predators depleted their resources.

Others believe that the Clovis did not entirely vanish but simply dispersed into Indigenous American tribes.

Yam Civilization

The Kingdom of Yam likely existed as a trading partner and adversary to ancient Egypt, yet its precise location remains as elusive as the myth of Atlantis. Based on inscriptions from the tomb of Egyptian explorer Harkhuf, it seems that Yam was a land of “aloeswood, ebony, leopard skins, ivory, and boomerangs.”

Illustration of Yam People. (Image: westshore.hs.brevard.k12.fl.us).

Despite Harkhuf’s claims of overland journeys lasting more than 7 months, Egyptologists have long identified the land of boomerangs as being only a few hundred miles from the Nile. The common understanding is that there was no way for the Egyptians to traverse the harsh terrain of the Sahara Desert. Questions also arise about what was found beyond the Sahara. However, it may have underestimated the ancient Egyptian traders, as recently discovered hieroglyphs approximately 700 kilometers southwest of the Nile confirm trade between Yam and Egypt and indicate that Yam is located north of the Chad Plateau.

It remains puzzling how the Egyptians crossed thousands of miles across the desert before the wheel was invented and with only donkeys for transport. But at least their destination is no longer shrouded in mystery.

Kush Civilization

Known from ancient Egyptian sources for its abundance of gold and other valuable natural resources, Kush was conquered and exploited by its northern neighbor Egypt for nearly half a millennium (around 1500 – 1000 BC). However, the origins of Kush go much deeper — ancient remnants from 8000 BC have been discovered in the area of the capital Kerma, and by the early 2400s BC, Kush had a complex and highly integrated society with large-scale agriculture.

Kush Pyramids. (Image: forums.graaam.com).

In the 9th century BCE, instability in Egypt allowed the Kushites to reclaim their independence. In one of the most dramatic turns of fate in history, Kush conquered Egypt in 750 BCE. In the following century, a series of Kushite pharaohs ruled over a territory far larger than that of their Egyptian predecessors. These Kushite rulers revived the construction of pyramids and extended these monumental works to Sudan. Ultimately, the Kushites were driven out of Egypt by an Assyrian invasion, ending centuries of cultural exchange between Egypt and Kush.

The Kushites fled south and reestablished their kingdom in Meroë on the southeastern bank of the Nile. In Meroë, the Kushites escaped the influence of Egypt and developed their own script, now known as Meroitic. This script remains a mystery and has yet to be deciphered, casting a shadow over much of Kush’s history. The last king of Kush died in 200 CE, though the reasons behind the decline and fall of his kingdom remain unanswered.

The Dilmun Civilization

Once an important trading hub during its golden age, Dilmun encompassed present-day Bahrain, Kuwait, and parts of Saudi Arabia. Although there is limited evidence, scholars believe that areas such as Saar and Qal’at al-Bahrain were inhabited by the ancient Dilmun people. Numerous artifacts dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE found in Saar support this hypothesis.

The Dilmun civilization controlled trade routes in the Persian Gulf and had a communication network that reached as far as Turkey. Many springs flowed through this region, leading to the legendary Bahrain being regarded as the Garden of Eden in the Bible. Described as “the land where the sun rises,” Dilmun played a significant role in Sumerian mythology.

The Elam Civilization

Though they referred to themselves as Haltam, the name “Elam” derives from an ancient Hebrew term for Haltam. The Elam civilization primarily occupied territory in modern-day Iran and a small part of Iraq. One of the oldest civilizations, Elam emerged in the 3rd millennium BCE and is recognized as the oldest civilization in Iran.

Remnants of the ancient Elamite kingdom. (Photo: Amazingbibletimeline.)

Situated along the borders of Sumer and Akkad, Elam’s terrain resembled that of its neighbors but featured a unique language. Elam existed as an independent kingdom for over a millennium, yet we know very little about them due to their ancient records primarily celebrating kings and issuing decrees, rather than documenting myths, literature, or scientific achievements. Consequently, their impact on the development of modern civilizations is less significant compared to that of Egypt and Sumer.

The Norte Chico Civilization

Emerging in the 3rd millennium BCE and lasting over 1,200 years, Norte Chico (also known as the Caral or Caral-Supe civilization) is considered the oldest civilization in South America, encompassing the area now known as Peru.

Researchers believe that the first urban centers of this civilization began to form around 3,500 BCE. From approximately 3,200 BCE onward, large settlements and community structures clearly took shape. The Norte Chico kingdom boasted 20 large cities with advanced architecture and agriculture. They also developed a complex irrigation system unprecedented in the Americas at that time.

The Norte Chico civilization is famous for its impressive architectural structures, with religious artifacts found throughout the region, particularly near the stone pyramids. This civilization had a significant influence on later South American cultures, such as the Chavin civilization that emerged a few hundred years after Norte Chico declined.

Illustration of pyramid construction in Norte Chico.

During its peak, the Norte Chico civilization housed over 3,000 residents. Notably, Norte Chico featured step pyramids, and carbon dating analysis has indicated that these structures date to the same period as the ancient Egyptian pyramids.

Archaeological evidence from Norte Chico suggests that the inhabitants were able to track agricultural production schedules and had a weather forecasting system. This enabled them to determine the start and end times of the growing season, and based on weather forecasts, they made appropriate decisions to enhance agricultural productivity.

Norte Chico is also regarded as the birthplace of the Quechua language, which is still in use today. Interestingly, Norte Chico is one of the few ancient civilizations that developed without a writing system.

Around 1,800 BCE, a prolonged drought forced the residents of Caral to abandon the city, and the sacred land of Caral was left desolate and buried beneath sand.

The Punt Civilization

As a trading partner with ancient Egypt, the land of Punt was renowned for its spices, ebony, and gold, located somewhere from South Africa to the Middle Eastern coastline. Although the Egyptians described the geography and people of Punt in detail, they did not specify the exact location of this ancient civilization.

The people of Punt supplied spices, ebony, and gold to ancient Egypt. (Photo: Harmakis).

Most of what we know about the Puntites comes from the time of Hatshepsut, the female Pharaoh who ruled Egypt around the 15th century BCE. Reliefs in her temple depict a trading expedition to Punt, featuring unique details such as images of beehive-shaped houses.

A mural in the temple illustrates Hatshepsut receiving magnificent gifts from this enchanting land. Researchers have yet to pinpoint the exact location of the Punt kingdom, despite many ancient Egyptian artifacts describing it.

The Yuezhi Civilization

Photo: Meduzza.

These ancient people ruled over Bactria and India from 128 BCE to 450 CE. They began as a nomadic tribe in northeast China, trading jade, silk, and horses across a vast area. Following disputes with the Xiongnu tribe, they migrated westward, conquering Greco-Bactria and displacing the Saka people. Gradually, they established a “sedentary agricultural economy,” and Yuezhi monasteries helped spread Buddhism in China.

The Greco-Bactria Civilization

Photo: Thecollector.

After the death of Alexander the Great, a state known as Greco-Bactria emerged in the 3rd century BCE, in the region now known as Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This kingdom was a wealthy place, with a unique civilization blending Greek and Eastern cultures. The history of Greco-Bactria is traced through coins, but much remains unknown about this kingdom that was ultimately destroyed by the Kushans.

The Etruscan Civilization

Photo: Italyperfect.

In northern Italy, the Etruscans thrived from the 8th to the 3rd century BCE, until they were conquered by Rome. Although their culture was ultimately erased, many of their tombs and frescoes remain. The independent cities and states of the Etruscans were connected by religion, language, and culture. This agriculture- and trade-based society was theocratic, where religious rituals played a significant role in daily life.

The Mitanni Civilization

Photo: Arkenonews.

Located in the land of the Hurrians (modern-day Syria, northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey), the kingdom of the ancient Indo-Aryans existed from the 16th to the 13th century BCE. At one point, Mitanni was quite powerful, and some believe that this empire could have expanded due to the decline of the ancient Babylonian empire. However, much of their history was destroyed by the Assyrians. At its height, Mitanni maintained good relations with Egypt, as evidenced by correspondence between the king of Mitanni and the Egyptian pharaoh.