Even when under pursuit, the Mongol cavalry could shoot arrows with precision, instilling fear in their enemies thanks to a device that allowed them to maneuver flexibly on horseback.
Before the name Genghis Khan became known worldwide, the Mongols were a people who lived a humble life on the steppes of Northeast Asia.
However, by 1227, when Genghis Khan died, the Mongol army had conquered and reached most lands across the Pacific and Caspian Sea regions. In 1241, they knocked on the door of Vienna, the capital of present-day Austria, and subsequently became a terror for Eastern European nations for the remainder of the 13th century.
The Mongol army under Genghis Khan was feared by many nations.
The Mongols claimed to have the largest contiguous land empire in history. Many historians believe that their remarkable success stemmed from a simple yet highly effective device: the stirrup.
No one knows when stirrups were first invented, but they provided tremendous benefits to any army that utilized them.
A stirrup, even the simplest form consisting of a loop of leather, helps soldiers maintain their balance on horseback longer during battle. Some even believe that stirrups shifted the balance of power from infantry to cavalry in Europe. Historian Roman Johann Jarymowycz nicknamed medieval cavalry “the steel tanks.”
The Mongols were not the first to use stirrups, but they transformed them into a formidable tool in battle. Historians suggest that the Mongolian cavalry not only used leather stirrups but also crafted them from metal.
In 2016, archaeologists at the Mongolian Cultural Heritage Center excavated the remains of a Mongolian woman from the 10th century BC. Along with leather shoes and several garments, they discovered a number of saddles and iron stirrups that are still usable today, buried alongside her.
Two stirrups excavated from the remains of a Mongolian woman from the 10th century BC.
A stirrup is a thick piece of metal with a small hole at the top for attaching to the saddle strap and a round, flat base for the rider’s foot. Stirrups must be comfortable and sturdy as the Mongols used them in a way never seen before.
A Song Dynasty general (960-1279) described the Mongols as riding while standing, with “most of their body weight concentrated on the calves, and a small portion on the feet and ankles.” Stirrups allowed them to remain stable and upright on horseback even in the most chaotic situations.
The stirrups were attached to wooden saddles, which had two raised parts at the front and back. Along with relentless practice on horseback, these saddles and stirrups provided the Mongols with remarkable steadiness. Riders could maintain their balance without using their hands, even as the horse moved in all directions or as the rider turned on the horse. This allowed them to comfortably shoot arrows in any direction.
At that time, most victorious armies achieved success by charging into battle. But the Mongols could advance and retreat without fearing enemy pursuit. When facing opponents, the Mongol cavalry would be the first to charge, shooting arrows continuously and launching aggressive surprise attacks. Yet, when the distance to the enemy was just a few meters, the Mongol cavalry would quickly turn and retreat.
The dangerous retreat
Stirrups allowed the Mongols to maneuver flexibly on horseback.
According to historian Thomas Craughwell, with their ability to maneuver flexibly on the saddle, even while retreating, Mongol cavalry could shoot arrows accurately at their enemies. As the Mongols attacked and retreated continuously, the enemy’s formation gradually fell into chaos. Marco Polo, who witnessed and studied the Mongolian attack techniques, noted: “The Mongols often avoided hand-to-hand combat. Instead, they rode continuously and shot arrows at the enemy.”
If traditional cavalry could be likened to tanks, then the Mongol cavalry were like fighter jets. Their mobility made them invincible.
When faced with the threat of defeat, Mongol soldiers would use psychological tactics. The cavalry would turn their horses and pretend to retreat. Overconfident opponents would often chase after them. The Mongol cavalry would then turn back, waiting for the enemy to come close. Next, the prepared Mongolian archers would surge forward, unleashing a “rain of arrows” on the enemy. Simultaneously, fully armored cavalry would charge into the attack. At that point, the outcome was almost certain.
The rise of the Mongol Empire due to the stirrup illustrates how technological advancements created a new strategy capable of conquering any army of the time. Countless factors contributed to Genghis Khan and his descendants acquiring vast territories across the continent. However, the stirrup always played a significant role in the victories of the Mongol army.
