The Luna program has experienced numerous successes and failures in the race to conquer Earth’s natural satellite, most recently highlighted by the Luna 25 spacecraft crashing into the Moon’s surface.
Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to land softly on the Moon. (Image: Science Photo Library).
The Apollo program marked the United States’ victory in the race to the Moon during the 1960s, but the Soviet Union also achieved significant milestones with the Luna program, which ran from 1959 to the mid-1970s. This program included a series of robotic missions, such as orbiters, landers, rovers, and sample return missions, according to Astro.
The Luna program was one of two lunar exploration programs conducted by the Soviet Union. The Luna missions were designed to gather information about the Moon and its environment, not only for scientific research but also to plan for future manned lunar flights.
According to LPI, despite experiencing many ups and downs in advancing manned lunar missions, the Luna program achieved numerous “firsts.”
Early Robotic Spacecraft
On January 2, 1959, the Soviet Union launched Luna 1 on a trajectory to crash into the Moon’s surface. However, the spacecraft deviated by 5,000 km and entered solar orbit.
This goal was realized nine months later with the launch of Luna 2 on September 12 of the same year. Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to photograph the far side of the Moon before crashing into its surface on September 15, 1959.
On October 4, Luna 3 was launched to commemorate two years since the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. The spacecraft orbited the Moon, capturing images of about 70% of the far side. The probe transmitted images back to Earth via television signals.
Orbital Missions
The second generation of Luna spacecraft was specifically designed for orbital missions. The Soviet Union successfully placed Luna 10 into lunar orbit on April 3, 1966, making it the first artificial object to orbit another celestial body. The 234 kg spacecraft transmitted results measuring micrometeorites and radiation during its 56-day mission.
Following this, the Soviet Union launched two additional orbiters, Luna 11 and Luna 12, in 1966. Luna 11 was launched on August 24 and orbited the Moon with a nearest point of 159 km and a farthest point of 1,200 km. Luna 12 launched on October 22, entering orbit with nearest and farthest points of 100 km and 1,740 km, respectively. The spacecraft sent back images of the lunar surface via television signals. Other successful orbital missions included Luna 14 (April 1968), Luna 19 (September 1971), and Luna 22 (May 1974).
Sample Return and Roving Missions
During this period, a series of Zond missions (precursors to crewed lunar flybys) were conducted, and Soviet engineers developed a new advanced landing spacecraft. These sophisticated spacecraft were designed to return lunar soil samples to Earth and deploy the Lunokhod rovers to explore the lunar surface. Between 1969 and 1970, the Soviet Union conducted six flights with this type of spacecraft under the names Luna or Cosmos. All six launches failed due to technical issues. Luna 15 crashed on the Moon in July 1969, just days after the Apollo 11 mission landed. Experts believe it was a mission intended to deploy a rover or return samples before the Apollo 11 crew.
Luna 16, launched on September 12, 1970, was the first successful automatic sample return mission. After landing in the Sea of Fertility, the spacecraft drilled 35 cm into the surface. A 100 g soil sample was transferred to a return vehicle, which landed in the Soviet Union on September 24 of the same year.
The Lunokhod 1 rover operated for 10.5 months on the Moon. (Image: Autoevolution).
Luna 17 marked the mission that delivered the first rover. Launched on November 10, 1970, the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Rains and deployed the Lunokhod 1 rover. This eight-wheeled vehicle was controlled by radio signals from Earth and was equipped with two cameras and various sampling instruments. Lunokhod 1 traveled approximately 10.5 km during its 10.5-month mission. The rover transmitted over 20,000 images back to Earth, including 200 panoramic photos. Its instruments analyzed soil characteristics at over 500 locations, while other tools analyzed the chemical composition of the soil at 25 sites. Lunokhod 1 also carried a retroreflector that allowed scientists on Earth to conduct laser experiments to measure the distance between Earth and the Moon with an accuracy of 40 cm.
This was followed by the launch of Luna 18 on September 2, 1971. This soil sample collection mission crashed on the Moon’s surface. Luna 19 launched 19 days later, successfully entering lunar orbit but was not designed to land.
Luna 20, launched on February 14, 1972, was a successful sample return mission. The spacecraft landed in the mountainous region between the Sea of Fertility and the Sea of Crises. The return capsule successfully landed on Earth with 50 g of lunar soil.
Luna 21, launched in January 1973, sent the Lunokhod 2 rover to the Le Monnier crater in the Sea of Serenity. The 840 kg rover traveled 37 km over its four-month operation, capturing numerous images and conducting experiments during its mission.
Three subsequent Luna spacecraft were designed to return soil samples. Luna 23 was destroyed during its landing attempt after launching in October 1974. Another Luna mission launched nearly a year later failed to enter orbit. The closest mission, Luna 24, launched on August 9, 1976, landed in the southeastern region of the Sea of Crises and drilled 2 meters deep. The spacecraft returned with 170 g of soil for analysis.
Failed Landing Attempts
In 1963, the Soviet Union launched two Luna probes in January and February but failed to reach Earth orbit. These unnumbered spacecraft were designed to land on the Moon’s surface. In April 1963, the Soviet Union launched another lander named Luna 4. The spacecraft flew past the Moon at a distance of 8,500 km and then entered solar orbit.
Following these flights were six additional failed landing missions over the next 2.5 years. In April 1964, a Moon lander was destroyed during launch. In 1965, the Soviet Union experienced five other landing failures. The spacecraft Cosmos 60 failed to achieve orbit in March of that year. Luna 5 crashed on the Moon in May 1965. Its successor, Luna 6, entered solar orbit after veering 160,000 km off course from the Moon. Luna 7 and Luna 8 crashed onto the surface of the celestial body in October and December 1965, respectively.
The mission of Luna 25 marked Russia’s first attempt to reach the Moon in 47 years since the last mission, Luna 24, launched on August 9, 1976. If successful, Luna 25 would lay the groundwork for Roscosmos’ future automated lunar exploration missions. The spacecraft was launched on August 10, 2023, from the Vostochny Cosmodrome on a Soyuz-2 Fregat rocket. On August 16, the spacecraft reached the Moon and fired its engines to enter orbit. According to the schedule, it was expected to remain in orbit for 5 to 7 days before landing on the Moon’s surface. The target area for the spacecraft was the Moon’s south pole to study the composition of the polar regolith and investigate plasma and dust composition in the outer layers of the celestial body over the course of a year.
Luna 25 failed to land on the Moon’s surface as planned. (Image: Money Control).
However, on August 20, the Russian space agency Roscosmos announced that Luna 25 crashed onto the Moon’s surface after losing control and entering an unpredictable orbit. Roscosmos has established a special internal committee to investigate the cause behind Luna 25’s failure, marking Russia’s return to the lunar race.
