The Indus River is one of the longest rivers in the world, originating from ancient India and currently flowing within Pakistan. Before the 18th century, it was surprising to people that this river, hidden in a deserted and little-known area, had a glorious past that rivaled that of ancient Egyptian civilization. Moreover, this civilization is regarded as unique in the history of humanity.
The Indus Valley Civilization first drew attention after the excavation of the Harappa site in the 18th century. At Harappa, archaeologists discovered the remains of a large city. In the mid-19th century, the head of the archaeological department, Kannihan, upon his second visit to Harappa, found a unique seal but considered it an external artifact. Consequently, he only wrote a simple report about this excavation. Fifty years later, the site was largely forgotten. Unexpectedly, in an area centered around Harappa, stretching 1,600 kilometers east to west and 1,400 kilometers north to south, many sites of the same civilization were discovered. This finding shocked the archaeological world, as such a large ancient civilization is indeed unprecedented globally.
Harappa refers to a distinctive ancient civilization within the broader context of the Indus Valley civilizations, flourishing approximately from 2,800 to 1,800 BCE, known through the enduring clay structures to this day. Historical records note the advanced development of the Harappan civilization in terms of economy, trade, agriculture, arts, and writing. However, this civilization vanished abruptly, and the reasons remain unclear to this day.
There are several hypotheses regarding the disappearance of the Harappan civilization. The most popular theory suggests that the land of the Harappans was invaded by the Aryan nomads, causing them to drift away and assimilate into other ethnic groups.
The second hypothesis pertains to climate change. It is suggested that around 1,800 BCE, the climate in the Indus River basin changed, becoming colder and drier, leading to rivers drying up and changing courses, which hindered agricultural development and resulted in the decline of the Harappan civilization.
Ancient city of Harappa. (Photo: Wikipedia).
In 1922, by chance, the Mohenjo Daro site was discovered 600 kilometers south of Harappa. The artifacts excavated here were very similar to those found in Harappa. Archaeologists immediately recalled the seal found at Harappa and the distance between the two sites. Both sites, located in the Indus River basin, were collectively referred to as the Indus Valley Civilization. According to surveys, both sites began construction approximately 5,000 years ago, or even earlier.
What astonishes people is not only the size and age of the two sites but also that they belong to the same civilization while exhibiting different living standards. Why is there such a peculiar phenomenon?
The results of research on the seals excavated at Harappa left many disappointed. No one has been able to read the inscriptions on these seals. Writing is a standard for assessing the civilization of a nation. Seals with inscriptions could play a crucial role in political and economic activities. Based on the seals excavated from these two sites, archaeologists speculate that Harappa and Mohenjo Daro were both urban centers.
To validate this assertion, archaeologists conducted extensive excavations at Mohenjo Daro. The area of the city is about 100 km2, divided into two zones, east and west. The eastern zone features large streets, while the western zone contains fortified structures. The fortifications in the western area rise to 10 meters. Within the city, there are granaries built of bricks and architectural structures used for bathing, referred to as “The Great Bath.” The size of the granaries is astonishing, indicating that Mohenjo Daro was a significant urban center. However, how did the ancients amass such a large quantity of grain in storage? The eastern zone consists of streets connecting in four directions, wider than 10 meters, extending east-west and north-south. Each household features wells and gardens, constructed from fired bricks.
It is hard to believe without seeing it firsthand. In other civilizations, bricks were typically reserved for royal palaces. What most astonished archaeologists is the presence of a complete drainage system. The sophistication of this drainage system surpasses that of many modern medium-sized cities. Wastewater from second-floor toilets could flow through pipes in the walls down to underground sewers. Some homes even had waste chutes from upper floors. Dirty water from households flowed into drainage channels, subsequently draining into underground sewers like a concealed canal. The intricate network of underground sewers throughout the city inspires admiration for the ingenuity of the ancients. All housing areas feature corner drains.
From the excavation results, it is evident that this city placed great emphasis on public infrastructure serving the population. What kind of society was this? Why were there no palaces? All the houses were uniform, completely unlike the ancient Inca civilization with its palaces and temples, or ancient Egypt with its numerous Pharaoh tombs and vast disparities between the rich and the poor, nor similar to ancient Mesopotamia.
Mohenjo Daro. (Photo: Wikipedia).
In addition to the modern drainage system, Mohenjo Daro also had many river ports connecting to the Indus River and the Arabian Sea. This reflects an open and active foreign economic activity. Who planned all of this? The designer was likely someone with a modern mindset.
Throughout Mohenjo Daro, there is no defensive system or offensive weapons, nor exquisite and beautiful artworks. This is the “absence” that is unique and first among the known ancient civilizations.
Who governed this urban area? What methods were employed to rule such a vast land?
Mohenjo Daro and Harappa share identical urban architecture. Could it be that both places were capitals? Neither site contains palaces, making it difficult to speculate about their rulers. Among all the sites, archaeologists have indeed not found traces of a governing regime with kings or priests. Did the Indus Valley civilization 5,000 years ago abolish monarchy? Such a large country could not exist without a ruler. Archaeologists have meticulously studied the seals excavated from both sites, yet after nearly a century of effort, no one has been able to read the inscriptions. Could they symbolize power? If so, why do these ancient cities lack palaces and temples? Some seals depict deities, leading some to speculate they may be religious artifacts. However, others immediately counter this, asserting they are family or personal heirlooms, which cannot prove that this entire civilization had a religion. Moreover, nearly thirty thousand seals with images of deities represent only a tiny fraction.
Some suggest that deciphering the inscriptions on the seals could reveal the origins of this civilization. In reality, writing could aid in understanding the rise and fall of the entire civilization, but most archaeologists believe that a multifaceted study is necessary to draw conclusions.
Seal of the Indus Valley Civilization. (Photo: Wikipedia).
Initially, people thought that this civilization flourished under the influence of another civilization. However, archaeological excavations have proven this conclusion to be entirely incorrect. Analysis of human remains excavated here also shows that the inhabitants bore a multitude of genetic lineages, not just one ethnic group as we know today.
Who were the people who built a civilized metropolis in a land where habitation is no longer possible today, if not the ancestors of the Indian people? How was the Indus Valley civilization abandoned? This question can find some clues for answers from the skeletons excavated in Mohenjo Daro.
The skeletons excavated here were found in a curious state. The deceased were not buried in graves. They all died suddenly. In sites of ancient civilizations, unless an earthquake or volcanic eruption occurs, there cannot be such a collective sudden death. Mohenjo Daro has not experienced earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Human remains were found inside homes. Many corpses in the houses were lying in a manner that suggests they were trying to protect themselves. What could cause such immediate death if not an earthquake or volcanic eruption? Archaeologists have proposed many hypotheses such as disease, ambush, or mass suicide… but all were dismissed. These hypotheses do not provide substantial evidence.
Dr. Kara conducted a detailed chemical analysis on the skeletons excavated at Mohenjo Daro. In his report, he stated: “In 9 white skeletons, I found traces of high temperatures… needless to say, this is certainly not cremation, nor is it a sign of a fire.” What unusual high temperature could have caused the sudden deaths of the Mohenjo Daro inhabitants? Some speculate about the possibility of nuclear warfare occurring in various places during ancient times. So, does the Mohenjo Daro site relate to ancient nuclear war? Has the Indian subcontinent ever been a battlefield for ancient nuclear wars that are recounted in myths and epics? The scenes of war described in the epic “Mahabharata”, dating back 5,000 years, bear a striking resemblance to the aftermath of a nuclear bomb explosion in Hiroshima, Japan. The weapons depicted in the epic are even beyond the capabilities of the most modern weapons today.
The epic “Ramayana” describes a scene where hundreds of thousands of troops were annihilated in an instant. A noteworthy point in this epic is that the battlefield of this war is referred to as the city “Lanka.” “Lanka” is the name locals use for the ancient city of Mohenjo Daro. According to local residents, after the territorial division in 1947, Mohenjo Daro, which falls under Pakistan’s territory, was prohibited from excavation. At that time, many “architectural remnants” were left behind, resembling the aftermath of a nuclear explosion in Hiroshima, referred to as “Tolinidi,” the world’s first atomic bomb, which, after detonating in the Alamogordo desert in New Mexico, USA, also produced “glass-like material” due to the intense heat. However, speculation remains just speculation. Scientists increasingly believe that many civilizations have emerged and been destroyed on this Earth, but concluding that the Mohenjo Daro civilization was destroyed due to ancient nuclear warfare is still too premature.
Some argue that the Indus Valley civilization arose and existed alongside other civilizations. In its early stages, this civilization was influenced by another civilization. Additionally, there are opinions suggesting that the Ganges civilization is the result of the amalgamation of many ancient human civilizations. Yet, all these assertions remain mere conjectures!
