The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known legal code still in existence today. This text was inscribed on clay tablets in the Sumerian language at the end of the third millennium BCE.
What we know about the Code of Ur-Nammu comes from five major archaeological excavations conducted in the ancient Sumerian cities, including Nippur, Ur, and Sippar. The Code can be divided into two parts: an introduction and a section of laws.
As the oldest surviving legal code, the Code of Ur-Nammu provides us with a glimpse into how justice was conceived in ancient Sumerian society.
Image of King Ur-Nammu depicted on a Sumerian clay tablet. (Photo: Wikimedia).
Researchers discovered the first copy of the Code of Ur-Nammu on two fragments of a light brown clay tablet (measuring 20×10 cm) at a temple in Nippur, an ancient Sumerian city located in present-day Iraq. Unfortunately, due to poor preservation, only the introduction and five laws written in cuneiform are clearly visible.
In 1952, historian Samuel Kramer translated the contents of the clay tablet into English and made it available to the public. Currently, the two fragments are on display at the Istanbul Archaeological Museum in Turkey.
Subsequently, archaeologists found other clay tablets referencing the Code of Ur-Nammu. For instance, a tablet excavated from the city-state of Ur [a city that existed as an independent nation] enabled researchers to restore the contents of about 40 out of 57 laws. They translated all of these laws into English in 1965.
Clay fragments were also discovered in Sippar, another Sumerian city. However, the content inscribed on them differs slightly from the tablet excavated in the city-state of Ur, located in the southern region of Mesopotamia.
The authorship of the Code of Ur-Nammu is attributed to the king of the same name, Ur-Nammu—who ruled the city-state of Ur—because his name is mentioned in the introduction. However, some scholars suggest that the author of the code could also be Shulgi, Ur-Nammu’s son and successor.
Two clay fragments documenting the Code of Ur-Nammu displayed at the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. (Photo: Wikimedia).
The reign of King Ur-Nammu was a period of peace and prosperity. There are various opinions regarding the timeline of Ur-Nammu’s rule, but most scholars agree that it occurred in the last century of the third millennium BCE. He established the Third Dynasty of Ur and initiated what is now referred to as the “Sumerian Renaissance,” a period marked by significant advancements in Sumerian culture, economy, and military.
The Code of Ur-Nammu was written around 2100 – 2050 BCE, making it approximately three centuries older than the Code of Hammurabi of ancient Babylon.
The Code of Ur-Nammu begins with an introduction, which is a standard formal feature of legal codes originating from the land of Mesopotamia. In this introduction, King Ur-Nammu declares his responsibilities towards the land: “I cannot turn an orphan into a wealthy person, nor can I turn a sheep into an ox for plowing… but I can establish justice for the land of the Sumerians.”
Following the introduction is the section of laws. Their content includes the elimination of vices, violence, and conflict, as well as the protection of the most vulnerable individuals in society.
In contrast to the retributive principle of “an eye for an eye” found in the Code of Hammurabi, each law in the Code of Ur-Nammu is written according to a “cause and effect” relationship, listing each offense and its corresponding punishment. The laws in the Code of Ur-Nammu follow a specific pattern, structured as follows: If (the offense committed), then (the specific punishment). Most legal codes that emerged after Ur-Nammu also imitated this formula.
In the Code of Ur-Nammu, we can distinguish between different types of crimes. Some of the most serious offenses include murder, robbery, and rape. The punishment for these crimes is death. For example: “If a person commits murder, that person shall be put to death,” and “If a man violates the virginity of a young man’s wife, he shall die.”
Additionally, those who commit less serious offenses may face imprisonment or fines. For instance: “If a person commits kidnapping, that person shall be imprisoned and pay a fine of 15 silver shekels,” or “If a person breaks another person’s tooth, that person shall pay 2 silver shekels.”
The Code of Ur-Nammu also includes provisions stating that if someone is falsely accused but can prove their innocence, the accuser must compensate them financially. For example:
“If a man is accused of witchcraft, he must undergo water trials [such as dipping his hand into boiling water to retrieve a stone]. If he proves his innocence, then the accuser must pay a fine of 3 silver shekels,” and “If someone accuses a man’s wife of adultery, but she is innocent, then the accuser must pay 20 silver shekels.”
With the Code of Ur-Nammu, the king established a legal system addressing civil and criminal matters to ensure equality and fairness for the people within his domain. Through this code, we gain insight into the social structure during the reign of King Ur-Nammu. It was a society composed of three distinct classes. At the top was the king (Sumerian: lugal), below him were the free individuals (Sumerian: lu), and at the bottom were the slaves.
Although written thousands of years ago, the Code of Ur-Nammu continues to have certain impacts on our lives today. By outlining laws in a cause-and-effect model (if this, then that), Ur-Nammu set the foundation for later legal codes that emerged centuries later, as well as significantly influencing the laws we construct today.
In the future, the content and significance of this code will remain an intriguing subject of study for scholars from various disciplines, particularly in history, law, and linguistics.
